The MAX (Male Adult voXel) phantom has been developed from existing segmented images of a male adult body, in order to achieve a representation as close as possible to the anatomical properties of the reference adult male specified by the ICRP. The study describes the adjustments of the soft-tissue organ masses, a new dosimetric model for the skin, a new model for skeletal dosimetry and a computational exposure model based on coupling the MAX phantom with the EGS4 Monte Carlo code. Conversion coefficients between equivalent dose to the red bone marrow as well as effective MAX dose and air-kerma free in air for external photon irradiation from the front and from the back, respectively, are presented and compared with similar data from other human phantoms.

The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) has created a task group on dose calculations, which, among other objectives, should replace the currently used mathematical MIRD phantoms by voxel phantoms. Voxel phantoms are based on digital images recorded from scanning of real persons by computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Compared to the mathematical MIRD phantoms, voxel phantoms are true to the natural representations of a human body. Connected to a radiation transport code, voxel phantoms serve as virtual humans for which equivalent dose to organs and tissues from exposure to ionizing radiation can be calculated. The principal database for the construction of the FAX (Female Adult voXel) phantom consisted of 151 CT images recorded from scanning of trunk and head of a female patient, whose body weight and height were close to the corresponding data recommended by the ICRP in Publication 89. All 22 organs and tissues at risk, except for the red bone marrow and the osteogenic cells on the endosteal surface of bone ('bone surface'), have been segmented manually with a technique recently developed at the Departamento de Energia Nuclear of the UFPE in Recife, Brazil. After segmentation the volumes of the organs and tissues have been adjusted to agree with the organ and tissue masses recommended by ICRP for the Reference Adult Female in Publication 89. Comparisons have been made with the organ and tissue masses of the mathematical EVA phantom, as well as with the corresponding data for other female voxel phantoms. The three-dimensional matrix of the segmented images has eventually been connected to the EGS4 Monte Carlo code. Effective dose conversion coefficients have been calculated for exposures to photons, and compared to data determined for the mathematical MIRD-type phantoms, as well as for other voxel phantoms.

The International Commission on Radiological Protection intends to revise the organ and tissue equivalent dose conversion coefficients published in various reports. For this purpose the mathematical human medical internal radiation dose (MIRD) phantoms, actually in use, have to be replaced by recently developed voxel-based phantoms. This study investigates the dosimetric consequences, especially with respect to the effective male dose, if not only a MIRD phantom is replaced by a voxel phantom, but also if the tissue compositions and the radiation transport codes are changed. This task will be resolved by systematically replacing in the mathematical ADAM/GSF exposure model, first the radiation transport code, then the tissue composition and finally the phantom anatomy, in order to arrive at the voxel-based MAX/EGS4 exposure model. The results show that the combined effect of these replacements can decrease the effective male dose by up to 25% for external exposures to photons for incident energies above 30 keV for different field geometries, mainly because of increased shielding by a heterogeneous skeleton and by the overlying adipose and muscle tissue, and also because of the positions internal organs have in a realistically designed human body compared to their positions in the mathematically constructed phantom.

Purpose-Radiation dose calculations in nuclear medicine depend on quantification of activity via planar and/or tomographic imaging methods. However, both methods have inherent limitations, and the accuracy of activity estimates varies with object size, background levels, and other variables. The goal of this study was to evaluate the limitations of quantitative imaging with planar and SPECT approaches, with a focus on activity quantification for use in calculating absorbed dose estimates for normal organs and tumors. To do this we studied a series of phantoms of varying complexity of geometry, with three radionuclides whose decay schemes varied from simple to complex. Tc, 131 I and 111 In (74, 185, 370 and 740 kBq/ml) were placed in spheres of four different sizes in a water-filled phantom, with three different levels of activity in the surrounding water. Planar and SPECT images of the phantoms were obtained on a modern SPECT/CT system. These radionuclides and concentration/background studies were repeated using a cardiac phantom and a modified torso phantom with liver and 'tumor' regions containing the radionuclide concentrations and with the same varying background levels. Planar quantification was performed using the geometric mean approach, with attenuation correction (AC), and with and without scatter corrections (SC and NSC). SPECT images were reconstructed using attenuation maps (AM) for AC; scatter windows were used to perform SC during image reconstruction. Methods-Four aqueous concentrations of 99mResults-For spherical sources with corrected data, good accuracy was observed (generally within ± 10% of known values) for the largest sphere (11.5 ml) and for both planar and SPECT methods with 99m Tc and 131 I, but were poorest and deviated from known values for smaller objects, most notably for 111 In. SPECT quantification was affected by the partial volume effect in smaller objects and generally showed larger errors than the planar results in these cases for all radionuclides. For the cardiac phantom, results were the most accurate of all of the experiments, for all radionuclides. Background subtraction was an important factor influencing these results. The contribution of scattered photons was important in quantification with 131 I; if scatter was not accounted for, activity tended to be overestimated using planar quantification methods. For the torso phantom experiments, results show a clear understimation of activity when compared to previous experiment with spherical sources, for all radionuclides. Despite some variations that were observed as the level of background increased, the SPECT results were more consistent across different activity concentrations. Conclusion-Planar or SPECT quantification on state-of-the-art gamma cameras with appropriate quantitative processing can provide accuracies of better than 10% for large objects and modest targetto-background concentrations; however when smaller objects are used, in the presence of higher background, and for nuclides with more complex decay...

This paper describes the development of a tomographic model of a rat developed using CT images of an adult male Wistar rat for radiation transport studies. It also presents calculations of absorbed fractions (AFs) under internal photon and electron sources using this rat model and the Monte Carlo code MCNP. All data related to the developed phantom were made available for the scientific community as well as the MCNP inputs prepared for AF calculations in that phantom and also all estimated AF values, which could be used to obtain absorbed dose estimates--following the MIRD methodology--in rats similar in size to the presently developed model. Comparison between the rat model developed in this study and that published by Stabin et al (2006 J. Nucl. Med. 47 655) for a 248 g Sprague-Dawley rat, as well as between the estimated AF values for both models, has been presented.