Following the recent success of monolithically integrated Perovskite/Si tandem solar cells, great interest has been raised in searching for alternative wide bandgap top-cell materials with prospects of a fully earthabundant, stable and efficient tandem solar cell. Thin film chalcogenides (TFCs) such as the Cu 2 ZnSnS 4 (CZTS) could be suitable top-cell materials. However, TFCs have the disadvantage that generally at least one high temperature step (> 500 • C) is needed during the synthesis, which could contaminate the Si bottom cell. Here, we systematically investigate the monolithic integration of CZTS on a Si bottom solar cell. A thermally resilient double-sided Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact (TOPCon) structure is used as bottom cell. A thin (< 25 nm) TiN layer between the top and bottom cells, doubles as diffusion barrier and recombination layer. We show that TiN successfully mitigates in-diffusion of CZTS elements into the c-Si bulk during the high temperature sulfurization process, and find no evidence of electrically active deep Si bulk defects in samples protected by just 10 nm TiN. Post-process minority carrier lifetime in Si exceeded 1.5 ms, i.e., a promising implied open-circuit voltage (i-V oc) of 715 mV after the high temperature sulfurization. Based on these results, we demonstrate a first proof-of-concept two-terminal CZTS/Si tandem device with an efficiency of 1.1% and a V oc of 900 mV. A general implication of this study is that the growth of complex semiconductors on Si using high temperature steps is technically feasible, and can potentially lead to efficient monolithically integrated two-terminal tandem solar cells.

The monolithic tandem integration of third-generation solar energy materials on silicon holds great promise for photoelectrochemistry and photovoltaics. However, this can be challenging when it involves high-temperature reactive processes, which would risk damaging the Si bottom cell. One such case is the high-temperature sulfurization/selenization in thin film chalcogenide solar cells, of which the kesterite Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) is an example. Here, by using very thin (<10 nm) TiN-based diffusion barriers at the interface, with different composition and properties, we demonstrate on a device level that the protection of the Si bottom cell is largely dependent on the barrier layer engineering. Several monolithic CZTS/Si tandem solar cells with open-circuit voltages (Voc) up to 1.06 V and efficiencies up to 3.9% are achieved, indicating a performance comparable to conventional interfacial layers based on transparent conductive oxides, and pointing to a promising alternative design in solar energy conversion devices.

In kesterite Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 (CZTSSe) solar cell research, an asymmetric crystallization profile is often obtained after annealing, resulting in a bilayered -or double-layered -CZTSSe absorber. So far, only segregated pieces of research exist to characterize the appearance of this double layer, its formation dynamics and its effect on the performance of devices. In this work, we review the existing research on double-layered kesterites and evaluate the different mechanisms proposed. Using a cosputtering-based approach, we show that the two layers can differ significantly in morphology, composition and optoelectronic properties, and complement the results with a large statistical dataset of over 850 individual CZTS solar cells. By reducing the absorber thickness from above 1000 nm to 300 nm, we show that the double layer segregation is alleviated. In turn, we see a progressive improvement in the device performance for lower thickness, which alone would be inconsistent with the well-known case of ultrathin CIGS solar cells. We therefore attribute the improvements to the reduced double-layer occurrence, and find that the double layer limits the efficiency of our devices to below 7%. By comparing the results with CZTS grown on monocrystalline Si substrates, without a native Na supply, we show that the alkali metal supply does not determine the double layer formation, but merely reduces the threshold for its occurrence. Instead, we propose that the main formation mechanism is the early migration of Cu to the surface during annealing and formation of Cu2-xS phases, in a self-regulating process akin to the Kirkendall effect. Finally, we comment on the generality of the mechanism proposed, by comparing our results to other synthesis routes, including our own in-house results from solution processing and pulsed laser deposition of sulfide-and oxide-based targets. We find that although the double layer occurrence largely depends on the kesterite synthesis route, the common factors determining the double layer occurrence appear to be the presence of metallic Cu and/or a chalcogen deficiency in the precursor matrix. We suggest that understanding the limitations imposed by the double layer dynamics could prove useful to pave the way for breaking the 13% efficiency barrier for this technology.

Energy band alignment at the heterointerface between CdS and kesterite Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) and its alloys plays a crucial role in determining the efficiency of the solar cells. Whereas Ag alloying of CZTS has been shown to reduce anti-site defects in the bulk and thus rise the efficiency, the electronic properties at the interface with the CdS buffer layer have not been extensively investigated. In this work, we present a detailed study on the band alignment between n-CdS and p-CZTS upon Ag alloying by depth-profiling ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Our findings indicate that core-level peaks and the valence band edge of CdS exhibit a significant shift to a lower energy (larger than 0.4 eV) upon the etching of the CdS layer, which can be assigned due to band bending and chemical shift induced by a change in the chemical composition across the interface. Using a simplified model based on charge depletion layer conservation, a significantly larger total charge region depletion width was determined in Ag-alloyed CZTS as compared to its undoped counterpart. Our findings reveal a cliff-like band alignment at both CdS/CZTS and CdS/Ag-CZTS heterointerfaces. However, the conduction-band offset decreases by more than 0.1 eV upon Ag alloying of CZTS. The approach demonstrated here enables nanometer-scale depth profiling of the electronic structure of the p–n junction and can be universally applied to study entirely new platforms of oxide/chalcogenide heterostructures for next-generation optoelectronic devices.

As the photovoltaic (PV) sector approaches 1 TW in cumulative installed capacity, we provide an overview of the current challenges to achieve further technological improvements. On the raw materials side,...