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An ecosystem approach forms the basis of many recent environmental policies. The underlying 22 concept states that decision-makers must consider the environmental, social and economic costs and 23 benefits in the course of deciding whether to implement a management action. Decision-making can 24 be undermined by uncertainty. Here, we discuss potential sources of uncertainty and their effect on an 25 ecosystem approach-driven environmental policy, the factors affecting the choice and potential for 26 management actions to achieve their objectives, the challenges associated with setting realistic and 27 achievable targets, and how we can prioritise management of detrimental activities. We also consider 28 how human challenges such as the availability of infrastructure and political will and ways of 29 measuring costs and benefits and Member State interactions could also undermine environmental 30 management. Potential limitations along with areas where further effort may be required to support 31 ecosystem-based management objectives are highlighted and the advantages of a structured step-32 wise interdisciplinary approach to ecosystem management is shown.

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