With different prevalence in different regions, radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF) are widely used for therapeutic tissue heating. Although short-wave diathermy (27.12 MHz) is the most popular treatment modality, quantitative data on patient's exposure have been lacking. By numerical simulation with the numerical anatomical model NORMAN, intracorporal distributions of specific absorption rates (SAR) were investigated for different treatment scenarios and applicators. Quantitative data are provided for exposures of target treatment areas as well as for vulnerable regions such as the eye lenses, central nervous system, and testes. Different applicators and distances were investigated. Capacitive and inductive applicators exhibit quite a different heating efficiency. It could be shown that for the same output power therapeutic heat deposition can vary by almost one order of magnitude. By mimicking therapist's practice to use patient's heat perception as an indicator for output power setting, numerical data were elaborated demonstrating that muscle tissue exposures may be several times higher for inductive than for capacitive applicators. Presented quantitative data serve as a guide for power adjustment preventing relevant overexposures without compromising therapy; they also provide a basis for estimating target tissue heat load and developing therapeutic guidelines.

There is still an ongoing debate whether or not electronic stun devices (ESDs) induce cardiac fibrillation. To assess the ventricular fibrillation risk of law enforcing electronic control devices, quantitative estimates of cardiac electric current densities induced by delivered electric pulses are essential. Numerical simulations were performed with the finite integration technique and the anatomical model of a standardized European man (NORMAN) segmented into 2 mm voxels and 35 different tissues. The load-dependent delivery of TASER X-26 pulses has been taken into account. Cardiac exposure to electric current densities of vertically and horizontally aligned dart electrodes was quantified and different hit scenarios compared. Since fibrillation thresholds critically depend on exposed volume, the provided quantitative data are essential for risk assessment. The maximum cardiac rms current densities amounted to 7730 A m(-2). Such high current densities and exposed cardiac volumes do not exclude ventricular fibrillation.

In view of reported fatalities there are still controversial discussions on whether electronic stun law enforcement weapons can cause cardiac fibrillation. Experimental data are contradictory. Simplified theoretical estimations led to a negligible low risk of 8.10(-7). With a detailed numerical-anatomical model of an adult man (NORMAN) cardiac exposure to Taser X26 high-tension pulses was quantitatively assessed and the fibrillation risk estimated by accounting for its dependence on excited volume based on 3D cardiac exposure patterns. For distance mode and worst case dart hits it could be demonstrated that cardiac exposure can reach the 30% fibrillation risk level. Risk reduces considerably if direct current flow across the heart is prevented. The overall fibrillation risk of Taser application is further reduced by the limited probability of critical hits. However, in agreement with experimental findings it is demonstrated that cardiac fibrillation risk of Taser X26 dart mode application is small, however, not negligible.

The prevalence of pacemaker patients among the general population and of conducted energy devices (CED) for law enforcement and self-defence is increasing. Consequently, the question whether cardiac pacemaker (CPM) patients are on particular risk becomes increasingly important. The risk of Taser X26 electric interference with implanted CPM has been investigated by numerical simulation at MRI-based anatomical models of CPM patients with devices implanted at conventional sites (left pectoral, right pectoral and abdominal) and with the monopolar CPM electrode placed at the ventricular apex. In spite of 10 fold higher peak voltages the different coupling conditions make Taser-induced CPM interference voltages lower than those caused by external cardiac defibrillators. It is shown that electric interference considerably depends on ECD electrode orientation. The most unfavourable conditions are encountered with ECD electrodes aligned with the line from the CPM electrode tip to CPM can (EPC line). It could be shown that worst case interference voltages of monopolar pacemakers of any kind of implantation remain below the pulse immunity level as defined in safety standards of implantable cardiac pacemakers and of cardioverter defibrillators. However, interference voltages exceed CPM sensing thresholds. Therefore, capturing should be expected at Taser X26 contact mode application at any position at the upper part of the body including the abdomen, both at frontal and dorsal positions.

The prevalence of pacemaker patients among the general population and of conducted energy devices for law enforcement and self-defence is increasing. Consequently, the question on whether cardiac pacemaker patients are at particular risk becomes increasingly important, in particular, as the widespread use of such devices is planned in Europe. The risk of pacemaker patients has been investigated by numerical simulation at detailed anatomical models of patients with cardiac pacemakers implanted in left pectoral, right pectoral, and abdominal positions, with the monopolar electrode placed at the ventricular apex. The induced cardiac pacemaker interference voltages have been assessed for distant application of TASER X26 devices with dart electrodes propelled towards a subject. It could be shown that interference voltages are highest in abdominal pacemaker implantation, while they are about 20% lower in left or right pectoral sites. They remain below the immunity threshold level as defined by safety standards of implanted cardiac pacemakers and of implanted cardioverter defibrillators to prevent persisting malfunction or damage. However, induced voltages are high enough to be sensed by the pacemaker and to capture pacemaker function in case of hits at thorax and abdomen, frontal as well as dorsal.