Purpose Additive manufacturing (AM) is a promising alternative to the conventional production methods (i.e., machining), providing the developers with great geometrical and topological freedom during the design and immediate prototyping customizability. However, frictional characteristics of the AM surfaces are yet to be fully explored, making the control and manufacturing of precise assembly manufactured mechanisms (i.e., robots) challenging. The purpose of this paper is to understand the tribological behavior of fused deposition modeling (FDM) manufactured surfaces and test the accuracy of existing mathematical models such as Amontons–Coulomb, Tabor–Bowden, and variations of Hertz Contact model against empirical data. Design/methodology/approach Conventional frictional models Amontons–Coulomb and Tabor–Bowden are developed for the parabolic surface topography of FDM surfaces using variations of Hertz contact models. Experiments are implemented to measure the friction between two flat FDM surfaces at different speeds, normal forces, and surface configuration, including the relative direction of printing stripes and sliding direction and the surface area. The global maximum measured force is considered as static friction, and the average of the local maxima during the stick-slip phase is assumed as kinematic friction. Spectral analysis has been used to inspect the relationship between the chaos of vertical wobbling versus sliding speed. Findings It is observed that the friction between the two FDM planes is linearly proportional to the normal force. However, in contrast to the viscous frictional model (i.e., Stribeck), the friction reduces asymptotically at higher speeds, which can be attributed to the transition from harmonic to normal chaotic vibrations. The phase shift is investigated through spectral analysis; dominant frequencies are presented at different pulling speeds, normal forces, and surface areas. It is hypothesized that higher speeds lead to smaller dwell-time, reducing creep and adhesive friction consequently. Furthermore, no monotonic relationship between surface area and friction force is observed. Research limitations/implications Due to the high number of experimental parameters, the research is implemented for a limited range of surface areas, which should be expanded in future research. Furthermore, the pulling position of the jaws is different from the sliding distance of the surfaces due to the compliance involved in the contact and the pulling cable. This issue could be alleviated using a non-contact position measurement method such as LASER or image processing. Another major issue of the experiments is the planar orientation of the pulling object with respect to the sliding direction and occasional swinging in the tangential plane. Practical implications Given the results of this study, one can predict the frictional behavior of FDM manufactured surfaces at different normal forces, sliding speeds, and surface configurations. This will help to have better predictive and model-based control algorithms for fully AM manufactured mechanisms and optimization of the assembly manufactured systems. By adjusting the clearances and printing direction, one can reduce or moderate the frictional forces to minimize stick-slip or optimize energy efficiency in FDM manufactured joints. Knowing the harmonic to chaotic phase shift at higher sliding speeds, one can apply certain speed control algorithms to sustain optimal mechanical performance. Originality/value In this study, theoretical tribological models are developed for the specific topography of the FDM manufactured surfaces. Experiments have been implemented for an extensive range of boundary conditions, including normal force, sliding speed, and contact configuration. Frictional behavior between flat square FDM surfaces is studied and measured using a Zwick tensile machine. Spectral analysis, auto-correlation, and other methods have been developed to study the oscillations during the stick-slip phase, finding local maxima (kinematic friction) and dominant periodicity of the friction force versus sliding distance. Precise static and kinematic frictional coefficients are provided for different contact configurations and sliding directions.

Pneumatic stepper motors are one of the promising alternative actuation methods for motion control in environments where electromagnetic (EM) motors cannot be used. Due to the lack of commercial off-the-shelf products, researchers working on MR compatible robotics have to develop their own pneumatic actuators. This imposes extensive costs and delays on the development process. Additionally, the current solutions are limited in their range of specifications and are difficult to manufacture. In this paper, proof-of-concept-prototypes for a family of parametrically designed, electromagnetically stealth, rotational pneumatic stepper motors are presented. The main objective of the paper is to demonstrate a general purpose nonelectromagnetic actuation method, which can be customized and integrated into any design. Customizability, miniaturization, safety and affordability are some of the key features of the presented work. The developed prototypes are entirely 3D-printed and contain no sealing, bearing or lubrication. Thanks to the low production cost, the motor can be used as a disposable part in surgical applications. Experiments demonstrate effectiveness of the design in terms of cost-efficiency, versatility, MRIcompatibility, speed and performance. In order to optimize the design and control algorithm, empirical equations are presented describing response time of a pneumatic system to sequential pressure signals. A rotational speed of 800 rpm, total volume of 4.6 cm 3 and resolution of 3 • are some of the design attributes. The effects of clearance on stick-slip effect and leakage in a 3D printed cylinder-piston are also presented.

Additive manufacturing (AM) is one of the emerging production methodologies transforming the industrial landscape. However, application of the technology in fluidic power transmission and actuation is still limited. AM pneumatic stepper motors have been previously introduced to the field of image-guided surgical robotics, where their disposability and customizability are considered a significant advantage over conventional manufacturing. However, intrinsic dimensional limitations of AM parts and their poor surface quality affect mechanical performance. In this letter, a novel design, PneuAct-II, is presented combining AM, subtractive machining, and off-the-shelf components to achieve higher mechanical performance and resolution. Moreover, a motor identification setup has been built to automatically measure different aspects of the PneuAct motors, including wear, friction, leakage, and stall behavior at various boundary conditions. The effects of input pressure, stepping frequency, signal-width, and external torque on the stall behavior of motors with different clearances are studied. A maximum torque of 0.39 N•m at an input pressure of 6.5 bar is achieved for a motor with a total volume of 90 cm 3 , and a clearance of 156 µm. A nominal resolution of 2.25 • at full-pitch and 1.125 • at half-pitch is accomplished. Both resolution and mechanical performance (667 N•m/bar • m 3 ) outperform the state-of-the-art (240 N•m/bar • m 3 by PneuAct-I).