Pentavalent antimonials, including meglumine antimoniate and sodium stibogluconate, have been used for more than half a century in the therapy of the parasitic disease leishmaniasis. Even though antimonials are still the first-line drugs, they exhibit several limitations, including severe side effects, the need for daily parenteral administration and drug resistance. The molecular structure of antimonials, their metabolism and mechanism of action are still being investigated. Some recent studies suggest that pentavalent antimony acts as a prodrug that is converted to active and more toxic trivalent antimony. Other works support the direct involvement of pentavalent antimony. Recent data suggest that the biomolecules, thiols and ribonucleosides, may mediate the actions of these drugs. This review will summarize the progress to date on the chemistry and biochemistry of pentavalent antimony. It will also present the most recent works being done to improve antimonial chemotherapy. These works include the development of simple synthetic methods for pentavalent antimonials, liposome-based formulations for targeting the Leishmania parasites responsible for visceral leishmaniasis and cyclodextrin-based formulations to promote the oral delivery of antimony.

Canine leishmaniasis (CanL) is a vector-borne disease caused by Leishmania infantum and is transmitted by female phlebotomine sand flies primarily between animals and secondarily to humans. The course of infection may be different from one individual dog to another, ranging from spontaneous cure to acute evolution that leads to death, if proper management and therapy are not adopted. A parasitological cure is rarely achieved and clinical recurrences in CanL are frequent. Vaccination associated with the use of topical insecticides is undoubtedly the most effective form of prevention and control of the disease. In order to integrate the most important scientific knowledge of the literature in one objective publication, this review proposes a short overview of the main points of CanL.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) has been considered an alternative process for intercellular communication. EVs release by filamentous fungi and the role of vesicular secretion during fungus-host cells interaction remain unknown. Here, we identified the secretion of EVs from the pathogenic filamentous fungus, Aspergillus fumigatus. Analysis of the structure of EVs demonstrated that A. fumigatus produces round shaped bilayer structures ranging from 100 to 200 nm size, containing ergosterol and a myriad of proteins involved in REDOX, cell wall remodeling and metabolic functions of the fungus. We demonstrated that macrophages can phagocytose A. fumigatus EVs. Phagocytic cells, stimulated with EVs, increased fungal clearance after A. fumigatus conidia challenge. EVs were also able to induce the production of TNF-α and CCL2 by macrophages and a synergistic effect was observed in the production of these mediators when the cells were challenged with the conidia. In bone marrow-derived neutrophils (BMDN) treated with EVs, there was enhancement of the production of TNF-α and IL-1β in response to conidia. Together, our results demonstrate, for the first time, that A. fumigatus produces EVs containing a diverse set of proteins involved in fungal physiology and virulence. Moreover, EVs are biologically active and stimulate production of inflammatory mediators and fungal clearance.

The standard treatment of human leishmaniases involves the use of pentavalent antimony [Sb(V)] compounds, including meglumine antimoniate. The mode of action of these compounds has not been fully elucidated. The possibility that Sb(III) is involved has been suggested; however, the biomolecule that may induce the conversion of Sb(V) to Sb(III) has not yet been identified. In the present study, we investigated both the ability of reduced glutathione (GSH) to promote the reduction of Sb(V) into Sb(III) in meglumine antimoniate and the effects of pH and temperature on this transformation. GSH did promote the reduction of Sb(V) into Sb(III) in a dose-dependent manner. When GSH and meglumine antimoniate were incubated together at a GSH/Sb molar ratio superior or equal to 5:1, all antimony was encountered in the reduced form, indicating a stoichiometry of 5:1 between GSH and Sb(V) in the reaction. The reaction between Sb(V) and GSH was favored at an acidic pH (pH 5) and an elevated temperature (37°C), conditions found within the phagolysosome, in which Leishmania resides. For instance, about 30% of the Sb(V) (concentration, 2mM) was converted to Sb(III) following incubation for 3 days with 10 mM GSH at pH 5 and 37°C. Our data support the hypothesis that Sb(V) would be converted by GSH, or a related thiol compound, to more toxic Sb(III) in the phagolysosome of macrophages.The leishmaniases are a group of diseases produced by invasion of the reticuloendothelial system of a vertebrate host by a parasite of the genus Leishmania. This parasite is found as a motile promastigote in the sandfly; it transforms into an amastigote when engulfed by host macrophages and resides in the acidic environment of secondary lysosomes (1). These diseases are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in several countries of the world. The treatment of choice for all forms of leishmaniasis depends on pentavalent antimony [Sb(V)]-containing drugs such as meglumine antimoniate (Glucantime) and sodium stibogluconate (Pentostam). Despite the clinical use of these antileishmanial agents for over half a century, their mechanism of action and the basis for their selective toxicity remain unknown. The hypothesis that Sb(V) acts as a prodrug that is converted to the more toxic trivalent antimony [Sb(III)] at or near the site of action was first suggested by Goodwin and Page (9), after they observed that a host organism can reduce Sb(V) into Sb(III). Recently, hydride generation-atomic absorption spectrometry analysis of serum and urine from patients treated with meglumine antimoniate revealed that 15 to 25% of serum antimony and 50% of urine antimony were trivalent (3, 15). This hypothesis was further supported by the observations that Sb(III) is more toxic than Sb(V) against both parasite stages of different Leishmania species (13,19,21) and that mutants of Leishmania infantum amastigotes selected for resistance to Sb(III) were cross-resistant to Sb(V) inside monocytes (22).Recently, however, Ephros et al. (6) showed that axenically grown amasti...

Recebido em 24/5/04; aceito em 14/9/04; publicado na web em 17/2/05 LIPOSOMES: PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL PROPERTIES, APPLICATIONS IN ANTIMONY-BASED CHEMOTHERAPY. The use of organoantimonial complexes in the therapeutic of leishmaniasis and schistosomiasis has been limited mainly by the need for daily parenteral administration, their adverse side-effects and the appearance of drug resistance. Liposome encapsulation has been so far the most effective means to improve the efficacy of pentavalent antimonials against visceral leishmaniasis. Pharmacologically-and pharmaceutically-acceptable liposomal compositions are still being investigated through manipulation of preparation method, lipid composition and vesicle size. Recently, the encapsulation of a trivalent antimonial within "stealth" liposomes was found to reduce its acute toxicity and effectively deliver this compound to the parasite in experimental schistosomiasis.Keywords: liposomes; antimony; chemotherapy. INTRODUÇÃONo início do século passado, Gaspar Vianna, pesquisador pioneiro em doença de Chagas e leishmaniose, relatou a eficácia do complexo de antimônio trivalente (Sb(III)), tártaro emético, no tratamento da leishmaniose muco-cutânea 1 . Da mesma forma, o tártaro emético foi o primeiro medicamento empregado com êxito no tratamento da esquistossomose 2,3 . Entretanto, o uso clínico deste composto foi interrompido, por causa de seus severos efeitos colaterais e da descoberta de novos fármacos menos tóxicos.A partir da década de 1940, complexos de antimônio pentavalente (Sb(V)) começaram a ser utilizados na terapêutica das leishmanioses 4 . Os principais antimoniais atualmente em uso são complexos de Sb(V) com o N-metil-glucamina (antimoniato de meglumina) e com o gluconato de sódio (estibogluconato de sódio). Até hoje, nem a estrutura desses compostos, nem seu mecanismo de ação foram completamente elucidados. Foi sugerido que o Sb(V) seria uma pró-droga, sendo reduzido no organismo hospedeiro a Sb(III) que seria a forma ativa e tóxica 5 . Recentemente, foi mostrado que os tióis podem estar envolvidos nesse processo de redução 6 . Embora os antimoniais pentavalentes continuem sendo os medicamentos de primeira escolha no tratamento de todas as formas de leishmanioses, o seu uso clínico apresenta várias limitações. Esses compostos devem ser administrados por via parenteral (injeção intravenosa ou intramuscular), diariamente, num período de 20-40 dias. Nesse contexto, efeitos colaterais são freqüentes Essencialmente duas estratégias diferentes estão atualmente disponíveis para o desenvolvimento de novos medicamentos. Uma estratégia envolve o planejamento/síntese de novas substâncias ativas ou de fármacos já conhecidos com modificações químicas; a outra envolve a associação reversível de fármacos já em uso a um sistema transportador, visando direcionar o fármaco para a célula alvo e evitar os locais indesejáveis onde o fármaco exerce toxicidade. Esta última estratégia, além de prolongar a validade de proteção por patente no uso do fármaco, oferece um...