Host‐age selection by several Trichogramma spp. strains was examined in laboratory choice‐tests, in order to use this as a criterion to select a candidate strain for inundative releases against lepidopterous pests of cabbage in the Netherlands. The behaviour of individual females toward combinations of host eggs of two different ages (zero vs 2 and 1 vs 3‐day‐old) of the host species Mamestra brassicae, Pieris brassicae and P. rapae was observed directly. Host age generally did not appear to affect contact or acceptance of eggs of either host species, except that oviposition was generally lower in the oldest M. brassicae eggs. The duration of the oviposition behaviour was sometimes influenced by host‐age. All strains were able to discriminate between parasitized and unparasitized hosts by external or internal examation. The lack of variation among the strains suggests that the host‐age selection pattern of a given host‐Trichogramma combination is predominantly dependent on the host species. The results are discussed in relation to optimal foraging theory. Résumé Sélection hôte‐âge par différentes souches de l'oeuf‐parasite Trichogramma spp. Afin de sélectionner une souche candidate de Trichogramma sp. pour des lâchés inondatifs contre les Lépidoptères, pestes du chou aux Pays‐Bas, la sélection hôte‐âge de plusieurs souches de Trichogramma spp., issues d'un éventail de 60 souches, a été examinée en laboratoire par des tests de choix. Le comportement de femelles individuelles, mises en présence de combinaisons d'oeufs‐hôtes d'âges différents (zero ou 2 jours et 1 ou 3 jours) des espèces‐hôtes Mamestra brassicae, Pieris brassicae et P. rapae, a été observé directement. En général, l'âge de l'hôte ne semble pas affecter le contact et l'acceptation des oeufs quelque soit l'espèce‐hôte. La ponte diminue généralement dans les oeufs les plus âgés de M. brassicae, mais pas chez les autres espèces. La durée du comportement de ponte est parfois influencée par l'âge de l'hôte. Toutes les souches ont montré la capacité de discriminer entre les hôtes parasités et non‐parasités, a l'examen externe ou interne et ceci, indépendamment de l'âge de l'hôte. Le manque de variation parmi les souces suggère que le mode de sélection hôte‐âge est surtout caractéristique de l'espèce‐hôte. Les resultats sont discutés en relation avec la théorie de fourrage optimal.
Host acceptance and suitability of Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn. for Trichogramma maidis Pint. et Voeg. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) were studied, after rearing the parasitoids on O. nubilalis or Ephestia kuehniella Oliv. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) for various numbers of generations. In cages, containing two maize plants with in total 30 egg masses of the natural host (O. nubilalis), wasps continuously reared on either E. kuehniella or O. nubilalis found egg masses in equal proportions. The former however, did not parasitize the eggs successfully, due to either low degree of host acceptance or insufficient host suitability or both. Subsequently, host acceptance behaviour of individual females from different strains was studied by means of direct observations after releasing them into a small arena containing eggs of O. nubilalis or E. kuehniella. Wasps continuously reared on O. nubilalis or 1–3 generations on E. kuehniella accepted egg masses of the natural host better than wasps continuously reared on E. kuehniella. Acceptance of O. nubilalis by the wasps gradually decreased with increasing numbers of generations reared on E. kuehniella. By rearing T. maidis, previously cultured on E. kuehniella, for five generations on O. nubilalis, acceptance of egg masses of this host species did not change. Host suitability of O. nubilalis appears to correspond with host acceptance of the strains. Contrary to the observations on O. nubilalis, acceptance and suitability of E. kuehniella were not influenced by the host on which T. maidis was reared. Results of this study show that host acceptance and suitability of the natural host are important quality factors for T. maidis when mass produced on a factitious host. Zusammenfassung Veränderung der Wirtsakzeptanz und ‐eignung bei Trichogramma maidis nach Zucht auf einem Ersatzwirt Wirlsakzeptanz und Wirtseignung von Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn. für den Eiparasitoiden, Trichogramma maidis Pint. et. Voeg., wurden untersucht nach der Zucht auf dem natürlichen Wirt, O. nubilalis, oder auf dem Ersatzwirt, der Mehlmotte, Ephestia kühniella Zell., Versuche mit Käfigen, in denen je zwei Maispflanzen mit insgesamt 30 Eigelegen von O. nubilalis und 40 Weibchen von T. maidis eingesperrt waren, zeigten, dass Weibchen, die seit über 150 Generationen auf O. nubilalis bzw. E. kühniella gezüchtet worden waren, die Eigelege gleich gut fanden. Während die auf O. nubilalis gezüchteten Parasitoide die Eigelege zu 80% parasitierten, war die Parasitierungsrate der auf E. kühniella gezüchteten Parasitoide gleich Null. Die Ursachen dieses Phänomens wurden in weiteren Versuchen durch direkte Beobachtungen über Wirtsakzeptanz und Wirtseignung untersucht. Einzelne Weibchen von Stämmen, die nur auf O. nubilalis oder während einer zunehmenden Generationenzahl auf E. kühniella gezüchtet worden waren, untersuchte man während 15 Minuten unter der Stereoskoplupe in einer kleinen Arena, die ein Eigelege des Maiszünslers oder Eier der Mehlmotte enthielt. Dabei zeigte sich, dass Wespen, die ausschliesslich auf Mai...
The biology of Trichogramma brevicapillum Pinto & Platner (Hymenoptera, Trichogrammatidae) reared on eggs of Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) (Lepidoptera), and the influence of some abiotic and biotic conditions on the parasitization strategy of the adults were studied. Egg, larva, prepupa, and pupa are described. Development of these stages lasted ca. 1,3, 1, and 5 days, respectively, at 25°. Reproduction is biparental, arrhenotokous. The preoviposition period lasts ca. 3 hr, and oviposition activity was maximal in the 3rd and 4th hr of the photophase and was minimal in the scotophase. The suitability of T. ni eggs as a host was maximal in the blastula stage of the embryo, decreased sharply in the early stages of differentiation, and increased rapidly in the later stages of embryological differentiation. A single ♀ reared from a host egg was larger and more fecund than 2 2 from eggs yielding 2 or 3 parasites. Oviposition by individual ♀♀ was restrained when the host egg density was limited, thus preventing superparasitization. The number of progeny per host egg and the ♂ proportion of the sex ratio were inversely related to the host egg density over a range of limited host densities. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Die Biologie von Trichogramma brevicapillum Die Biologie von Trichogramma brevicapillum Pinto & Platner (gezüchtet auf Eiern von Trichoplusia ni (Hübner)) und der Einfluss einiger abiotischer und biotischer Faktoren auf die Parasitierungsstrategie der Adulttiere wurden studiert. Eier, Larven, Praepuppen und Puppen werden beschrieben. Die Entwicklung dieser Stadien bei 25° dauerte etwa 1, 3,1 und 5 Tage. Die Fortpflanzung ist bisexuell und parthenogenetisch‐arrhenotok. Die Praeovipositionsperiode dauerte etwa 3 Stunden. Die Eiablage war am grössten in der dritten und vierten Stunde der Photophase und am kleinsten in der Scotophase. Die T. ni‐ Eier eigneten sich am besten als Wirt im Blastulastadium des Embryos. Die Eignung nahm ab in den nächsten Stadien um in den späten Embryonalstadien wieder zu wachsen. Weibchen, die sich einzeln in einem Wirtset entwickelt hatten, waren wesentlich grosser und fruchtbarer als Weibchen aus Wirtseiern mit 2 und 3 Parasiten. Die Eiablage einzelner Weibchen wurde gehemmt, wenn die Dichte der Wirtseier begrenzt war; dies wirkt der Superparasitierung der Wirtseier entgegen. Die Nachkommenzahl pro Wirtsei und der männliche Anteil des Geschlechtsverhältnisses waren umgekehrt proportional zur Dichte der Wirtseier und zwar im Bereich begrenzter Dichte.
Efficiency of hymenopterous parasitoids to control pests in a biological control release program probably increases with increasing searching ability of the females, which, in return, likely depends on the distance from which females perceive their hosts (i.e., reactive distance). In this study, we first analyse this hypothesis with the help of a stochastic model simulating the walking path of isolated Trichogramma females during their searching behaviour. Then, this reactive distance is estimated using automatic recording and analysis of the walking path of female wasps. Finally, the genetic variability for this trait is analysed in a Trichogramma brassicae Bezdenko (Hym.; Trichogrammatidae) population. Three types of hosts were used: Eggs of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lep.; Pyralidae), eggs of Mamestra brassicae L. (Lep.; Noctuidae) and 0.45 mm glass beads. M. brassicae eggs are perceived from 4.01 ± 0.15 mm, which is a significantly longer perceptive distance than for E. kuehniella eggs (3.69 ± 0.10 mm) and glass beads (3.67 ± 0.10 mm). Moreover, whatever the host tested, a significant genetic variation is observed in this trait in the population studied. The ecological and evolutionary implications and the agronomical importance of these results are discussed.
In order to select a candidate strain of Trichogramma sp. for inundative releases against lepidopteran pests in cabbage field‐crops in the Netherlands, the parasitization activity of a collection of 60 different Trichogramma spp. strains was studied during 2 h and 24 h exposures at 12 °C. Activity and parasitism varied significantly among strains and the two characteristics were not correlated, suggesting the action of two differentially temperature‐dependent mechanisms influencing both characteristics. Native strains were characterized by a low activity at 12 ° C, making their usefulness for inundative releases doubtful. In three strains tested at 12, 17, 20, 25 and 30 °C, activity increased linearly with temperature, until nearly all females parasitized at 20 or 25 ° C. Parasitism increased with increasing temperature to a maximum at 20–25 ° C and declined at 30 ° C. Handling time decreased asymptotically with increasing temperature. The results of this study suggest that Trichogramma strains vary in adaptability to low temperature, making this characteristic a useful criterion for evaluation of candidate strains. RÉSUMÉ Capacité d'adaptation aux températures basses en souches de Trichogramma spp Afin de sélectionner une souche de Trichogramma sp. (Hymenoptera, Trichogrammatidae) candidate pour des lâchés inondatifs contre les Lépidoptères pestes de chou aux Pays‐Bas, l'activité de parasitisation d'une collection de 60 souches différentes de Trichogramma spp. a été étudiée à 12 °C pendant des durées d'exposition de 2 h et 24 h. L'activité proportionnelle et le degré de parasitisation des femelles varient significativement selon des souches et ne sont par corrélès. Ceci suggère l'action des deux mécanismes distincts, dépendant de la température et contrôlant indépendamment chacun de ces processus. Les souches indigènes sont caractérisées par une faible activité à 12 °C, mettant en doute leur utilisation pour les lâchés inondatifs. Dans 3 souches testées à 12, 17, 20, 25 et 30 °C, l'activité augmente linéairement avec la température, jusqu'à ce que quasi toutes les femelles parasitent les oeufs hôtes à 20 ° C et 25 ° C. Le taux de parasitisation augmente avec la température atteignant un maximum à 20–25 ° C puis diminue à 30 ° C. Le temps de manipulation d'un oeuf hôte diminue asymptotiquement lorsque la température croît. Les résultats de cette étude suggèrent que la capacité d'adaptation aux températures basses varie selon les souches de Trichogramma. Cette caractéristique constitue un critère utile pour l'évaluation de souches candidates potentielles.
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