The chemistry of technetium in cement waste forms has been studied with x-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectroscopy. Using the Tc K-edge x-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) as a probe of the technetium speciation, our results show that partial reduction of the pertechnetate ion, Tc04-, takes place in the presence of the cement additive, blast furnace slag (BFS). The addition of the reducing agents FeS, Na2S, and NaH2P02 produces more extensive reduction of Tc04-, while the compounds FeO, Fe304, and Mn304 are observed to be unreactive. The extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) data for the BFS, Na2S, and FeS treated cements indicate the presence of Tc clusters possessing first shell S coordination. For the Na2S and FeS additives, Te-Te interactions are detected in the EXAFS demonstrating an extended structure similar to that ofTcS2. The EXAFS spectrum of the NaH2P02 treated cement reveals Te-O and Te-Te interactions that resemble those found in the structure ofTc02.

Estrogenic potencies of four herbicides (triclopyr, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), diquat dibromide, glyphosate), two alkylphenol ethoxylate-containing surfactants (R-11 and Target Prospreader Activator (TPA)), and the binary mixture of surfactants with the herbicides were evaluated using an in vivo rainbow trout vitellogenin assay. Juvenile rainbow trout exposed to 2,4-D (1.64 mg/l) for 7 days had a 93-fold increase in plasma vitellogenin (Vtg) levels compared with untreated fish, while rainbow trout exposed to other pesticides alone did not show elevated vitellogenin levels compared to the control fish. When combined with surfactants, trends indicated enhanced estrogenicity for all combinations, but only 2,4-D and triclopyr caused significant induction of Vtg. Concentration-response studies demonstrated that the lowest observed effect concentrations (LOECs) for 2,4-D and triclopyr were 0.164 mg/l and 1 mg/l, respectively. In terms of measured 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), the LOECs of R-11 and TPA were 20 micro/l and 9.5 microg/l, respectively. Binary mixtures of TPA and 2,4-D showed a greater than additive estrogenic response at the lowest concentrations tested, but a less than additive response at the highest combined concentrations. Binary mixtures of TPA with triclopyr also caused greater than additive Vtg responses in two middle concentrations when compared to TPA or triclopyr alone. When trout were exposed to water collected from a site where triclopyr was used in combination with TPA, a concentration-dependent increase in Vtg expression was observed. Measured values of 4-NP were 3.7 microg/l, and triclopyr concentrations were below detection (<5 ng/l). Estradiol equivalents (EEQs) of the lake water were calculated from an estradiol concentration-response curve and were similar (8.5 +/- 7.7 ng/l) to the mean values for the combined triclopyr + TPA treatments (9.9-12.2 ng/l) in the laboratory, suggesting the estrogenicity of the water may have been due to the treatment. These results demonstrated the binary mixture of alkylphenol ethoxylate-containing surfactants with two aquatic pesticides possessed greater than additive estrogenic responses in fish under laboratory conditions and in a field setting.

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A series of legal decisions culminated in 2002 with the California State Water Resources Control Board funding the San Francisco Estuary Institute to develop and implement a 3-year monitoring program to determine the potential environmental impacts of aquatic herbicide applications. The monitoring program was intended to investigate the behavior of all aquatic pesticides in use in California, to determine potential impacts in a wide range of water-body types receiving applications, and to help regulators determine where to direct future resources. A tiered monitoring approach was developed to achieve a balance between program goals and what was practically achievable within the project time and budget constraints. Water, sediment, and biota were collected under "worst-case" scenarios in close association with herbicide applications. Applications of acrolein, copper sulfate, chelated copper, diquat dibromide, glyphosate, fluridone, triclopyr, and 2,4-D were monitored. A range of chemical analyses, toxicity tests, and bioassessments were conducted. At each site, risk quotients were calculated to determine potential impacts. For sediment-partitioning herbicides, sediment quality triad analysis was performed. Worst-case scenario monitoring and special studies showed limited short-term and no long-term toxicity directly attributable to aquatic herbicide applications. Risk quotient calculations called for additional risk characterizations; these included limited assessments for glyphosate and fluridone and more extensive risk assessments for diquat dibromide, chelated copper products, and copper sulfate. Use of surfactants in conjunction with aquatic herbicides was positively associated with greater ecosystem impacts. Results therefore warrant full risk characterization for all adjuvant compounds.