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Traditional and modern vaccines that are currently licensed for commercial use have proven safe and effective in fighting several infectious diseases; they are unquestionably among the most efficient tools for promoting individual, public and global health. However, the vaccine field is still facing important shortcomings in that the use of vaccines has not been successful yet in preventing many other, especially chronic, infectious diseases and that a therapeutic effect remains beyond reach of contemporary vaccines. As vaccine-mediated immune protection is widely acknowledged to result from the combined effect of specific target antigens and nonspecific immune stimulating agents, it is likely that limitations of conventional vaccinal antigens and adjuvants are responsible for these shortcomings.

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