This study focused on developing a model to explain relationships among constraints, motivators, and attendance, and empirically test the proposed model within the spectator sport context. The proposed model explained 34% of variance in Attendance. Results showed that Attachment to the Team, an internal motivator, entered first and explained approximately 21% of the variance in attendance. Lack of Success, an internal constraint, entered next and explained almost 10% additional variance. Leisure Alternatives, an external constraint entered next and explained an additional 3%. The ability to properly evaluate constraints and motivators gives sport marketers the opportunity to more effectively serve existing fans, as well as attract new fans.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships among gender, type of sport, motives, and points of attachment to a team for spectators of selected intercollegiate sports. The significant MANOVA results indicated that gender explained 2% of the variance in motives and 3% of the variance in points of attachment; type of sport explained 4% and 7% of the variance in motives and points of attachment, respectively. A canonical correlation analysis suggested three significant and meaningful variates, which together showed a shared variance between motives and points of attachment in excess of 70%. This suggests that collegiate marketers and managers might want to design their marketing communications to emphasize the relationships among motives and points of attachment rather than trying to segment their fan and spectator base by gender or by type of sport.

Research question: The sport industry has deepened its commitment to implementing and deploying environmental sustainability initiatives. However, until this study there were no uniform ways to evaluate these efforts. To this end, the purpose of this study is to create and test the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model among sport participants of a 10-mile run event. Research methods: We tested the fit of the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model using 531 participants of a community run. Results and Findings: Needs, values, internal constraints, and points of attachment explained 52.1% of the variance in attitudes toward the campaign. Attitudes, external constraints, past behavior and all of the indirect effects of the other variables combined, explained 74.2% of the variance in participating in sustainability initiatives. Sport professionals can use this model to assess environmental sustainability campaigns and promote attitudinal and sustainable behaviors. Implications: The findings of this study have important implications for sport managers and marketers as they create and further advance their organization's sustainability campaigns. Understanding the needs and values of sport participants can help marketers and managers determine how those needs and values affect positive attitudes towards the campaign. Increasing the positive attitudes towards the campaign, while minimizing the negative influence of external constraints to act sustainably, can increase sustainable behavioral intentions and thus increase the success of the sport organization's sustainability campaign. This model can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of sustainability campaigns to influence attitudes and behaviors of sport participants.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential mediating effect of perceived value in the relationship between team identification and intent to purchase collegiate team-licensed apparel. Direct effect, partially mediated, and fully mediated models were compared. The respondents were students (N= 110) attending a large university in the southeastern United States. Participants first completed the Team Identification Scale and then viewed a slide depicting an article of licensed merchandise (t-shirt). Participants next completed the Perceived Value and Purchase Intention Scales. Goodness-of-fit statistics indicated that the direct effect model did not fit the data. The partially mediated and the fully mediated models fit equally well; the latter was more parsimonious and thus was chosen for further analysis. Team identification explained 13.2% of the variance in perceived value; perceived value explained 42.6% of the variance in purchase intentions. The findings indicate that team identification alone did not drive the purchase intentions in this study; it is important to take into account the perceived value of the team-licensed merchandise.

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