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International audiencePolymorphism in aposematic animals and coexistence of multiple mimicry rings within a habitat are not predicted by classical Müllerian mimicry. The butterfly Heliconius numata Cramer (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae; Heliconiinae) is both polymorphic and aposematic. The polymorphism is due to variation at a single locus (or `supergene') which determines colour patterns involved in Müllerian mimicry. We sampled 11 sites in a small area (approx. 60×30km) of North-eastern Peru for H. numata and its co-mimics in the genus Melinaea and Athyrtis (Ithomiinae), and examined the role of temporal and spatial heterogeneity in the maintenance of polymorphism. Colour-patterns of Melinaea communities, which constitute the likely `mimetic environment' for H. numata, are differentiated on a more local scale than morphs of H. numata, but the latter do show a strong and significant response to local selection for colour-pattern. In contrast, analysis of enzyme polymorphism in H. numata across the region revealed no spatial structure, which is consistent with a high mobility of this species. Differences in spatial variability in the two taxa may have caused H. numata to become polymorphic, while temporal variability, not significant in this study, probably has a lesser effect. The mimetic polymorphism is therefore explained by means of multiple selection-migration clines at a single locus, a similar process to that which explains narrow hybrid zones between geographic races of other Heliconius butterflies

This paper presents an updated checklist of the butterflies of Europe, together with their original name combinations, and their occurrence status in each European country. According to this checklist, 496 species of the superfamily Papilionoidea occur in Europe. Changes in comparison with the last version (2.6.2) of Fauna Europaea are discussed. Compared to that version, 16 species are new additions, either due to cryptic species most of which have been discovered by molecular methods (13 cases) or due to discoveries of Asian species on the eastern border of the European territory in the Ural mountains (three cases). On the other hand, nine species had to be removed from the list, because they either do not occur in Europe or lost their species status due to new evidence. In addition, three species names had to be changed and 30 species changed their combination due to new evidence on phylogenetic relationships. Furthermore, minor corrections were applied to some authors’ names and years of publication. Finally, the name Polyommatusottomanus Lefèbvre, 1831, which is threatened by its senior synonym Lycaenalegeri Freyer, 1830, is declared a nomen protectum, thereby conserving its name in the current combination Lycaenaottomana.

Understanding why species richness peaks along the Andes is a fundamental question in the study of Neotropical biodiversity. Several biogeographic and diversification scenarios have been proposed in the literature, but there is confusion about the processes underlying each scenario, and assessing their relative contribution is not straightforward. Here, we propose to refine these scenarios into a framework which evaluates four evolutionary mechanisms: higher speciation rate in the Andes, lower extinction rates in the Andes, older colonization times and higher colonization rates of the Andes from adjacent areas. We apply this framework to a species-rich subtribe of Neotropical butterflies whose diversity peaks in the Andes, the Godyridina (Nymphalidae: Ithomiini). We generated a time-calibrated phylogeny of the Godyridina and fitted time-dependent diversification models. Using trait-dependent diversification models and ancestral state reconstruction methods we then compared different biogeographic scenarios. We found strong evidence that the rates of colonization into the Andes were higher than the other way round. Those colonizations and the subsequent local diversification at equal rates in the Andes and in non-Andean regions mechanically increased the species richness of Andean regions compared to that of non-Andean regions ('species-attractor' hypothesis). We also found support for increasing speciation rates associated with Andean lineages. Our work highlights the importance of the Andean slopes in repeatedly attracting non-Andean lineages, most likely as a result of the diversity of habitats and/or host plants. Applying this analytical framework to other clades will bring important insights into the evolutionary mechanisms underlying the most species-rich biodiversity hotspot on the planet.