In the literature, it is often assumed that ergative constructions originate in passive constructions. The present contribution explores the likelihood of such a passive-to-ergative analysis for one language (Tima, Niger-Congo, Sudan), showing that this analysis cannot be substantiated and suggesting an origin in active constructions instead. This study is situated in its areal context (outlining similarities to split case marking systems across the region, especially in the Southern branch of Eastern Sudanic) and against the background of discussions in the Indo-Iranian family (from where the passive-to-ergative hypothesis presumably spread).

The verbal root in Tima may be marked for one or several derivational functions, such as transitive, ventive, antipassive, middle voice, causative, instrumental, or pluractionality. Contrary to other derivational devices, pluractional marking can be achieved by various formal strategies, which are described in detail in the present contribution. Pluractional marking on Tima verbs indicates only repeated action or duration, depending on the lexical aspect of the verb; the number of the subject or object does not interfere with the marking. However, certain constructions force the speaker to use the pluractional as default form; the focus is on the action itself in such constructions.

Tima, a Niger-Congo language of the Sudan, shows signs of split ergativity. If its constituent order deviates from the basic AVO order to OVA order, the postverbal agent is formally marked, unlike preverbal agents. A direct object, regardless of its position relative to the verb, is never marked. Research so far has shown that ergative constructions are triggered by certain participant constellations in discourse. In particular, when the speaker keeps a non-agentive participant, more specifically a direct object, as the centre of attention in sentence-initial position, a newly introduced agent occurs postverbally and receives ergative marking. In addition, AOV and OAV constructions are attested, both involving focus marking.

Tima, a language spoken in the Nuba Mountains of Sudan, uses three derivation markers (with various allomorphs) to either increase or decrease the valency of the verb. Middle voice and antipassive marking are used to reduce the valency. Causative marking may on the one hand increase the valency of monovalent verbs, while on the other hand it functions as an anticausative/passive marker for erstwhile transitive verbs. The distribution of these derivation markers across the formal alternation patterns augmentation, reduction, and double marking (as described by Nichols et al. 2004), is investigated in order to establish certain verb groups. Due to the peculiar behaviour of the causative marker, in that the device can be used to form a causal verb as well as a noncausal verb, the connection between causative and passive functions is further scrutinised by relating the Tima data to a grammaticalisation path, as suggested by Haspelmath (1990), from causative via reflexive-causative to passive. Tima deviates from this path: A reflexive-causative function is not attested; instead we find an anticausative function. The unlikely assumption that the Tima ergative construction originates from a further grammaticalisation of the causative-passive morpheme is also considered.

In this contribution, we look at Arabic borrowings in Tima, a Niger-Congo language spoken in the north-west of the Nuba Mountains (as well as in the Sudanese diaspora). Due to several factors, outlined in the paper, Arab culture has been exerting more and more influence on the Tima way of life, especially with regard to the Tima language, where we find – to varying degrees – Arabic lexemes, phrases and whole utterances. A detailed analysis of the phonotactic and morpho-phonological adaptation of Arabic borrowings is followed by a discussion on the socio-linguistic setting of language contact, i.e. essentially a contact between Arabic and Tima speakers. Eventually, as we argue, a repertoire approach seems the appropriate way to tackle the issue of language use in today’s Tima society.