Attempts have been made to justify the sexual division of labor by referring to women's relative physical weakness, lack of technical competence, and dislike for dirty work. An analysis of the work activity of train cleaners in France showed a rigid sexual division of labor, in which the task of toilet cleaning was exclusively assigned to women. Interviews and observations revealed a number of physical constraints associated with the work, and particularly with toilet cleaning. Women employees suffered from many musculoskeletal problems and were frequently absent from work. Toilet cleaning involved traveling distances of over 20 kilometers per day and maintaining uncomfortable postures. Twenty-five percent of time during the actual cleaning was spent in a crouched position. The work was complex, involving a number of choices and decisions, as well as requiring a variety of techniques adapted to the differences in the nature and location of soil. This "women's job" was dirty and physically demanding, and required technical skill. Among train cleaners, the inability to rotate jobs due to sex-typed job assignment may be associated with specific health and safety risks for both sexes.

Objective: Like most Western countries, France is faced with rapid changes in how social welfare and care regimes are being organized. Home care for the elderly has been closely affected by such trends. This study will analyse the consequences of such developments on work schedules and working conditions of female home care workers. Methods: We carried out 55 biographical interviews with experienced female home care workers employed by six associations as well as 13 interviews with representatives of those associations. Results: The findings reveal an increase in time pressure linked to a reduction in care time per care recipient as well as the fragmentation of care work. These conditions negatively affect the provision of quality care as well as care workers' physical and mental well-being and blur the distinction between workers' professional and home lives. Conclusions: The negative impacts observed call for a change in perspective in relation to how home care work for fragile, elderly people is organized. Our research bears out the necessity of drawing on the experience of the most highly-qualified care workers and entrusting them with the autonomy needed to manage the care time allotted to each care recipient.

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