The production of prostaglandins (PGs) during fungal infections could be an important suppressor factor of host immune response. Host cells are one source of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)); however another potential source of PGE(2) is the fungal pathogen itself. Thus, both host and fungal PGE2 production is theorized to play a role in pathogenesis, being critical for growth of the fungus and to modulate the host immune response. The purpose of this work was to investigate if high and low virulent strains of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis have the capacity to produce PGE(2) in vitro, and if this production was related to the fungal growth. The results demonstrated that both strains of P. brasiliensis produce high levels of PGE(2) and the treatment with indomethacin, a cyclooxygenase inhibitor, significantly reduced the production of this mediator, as well as the viability of the fungus. Thus, our data indicate that PGE(2) is produced by P. brasiliensis by a cyclooxygenase-dependent metabolic pathway, and its production is required for fungal survival. This discovery reveals an important factor that has potentially great implications for understanding the mechanisms of immune deviation during infection.

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is the agent of paracoccidioidomycosis, the most prevalent deep mycosis in Latin America. Production of eicosanoids during fungal infections plays a critical role on fungal biology as well as on host immune response modulation. The purpose of our study was to assess whether P. brasiliensis strains with different degree of virulence (Pb18, Pb265, Bt79, Pb192) produce prostaglandin E(x) (PGE(x)). Moreover, we asked if P. brasiliensis could use exogenous sources of arachidonic acid (AA), as well as metabolic pathways dependent on cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme, as reported for mammalian cells. A possible association between this prostanoid and fungus viability was also assessed. Our results showed that all strains, independently of their virulence, produce high PGE(x) levels on 4 h culture that were reduced after 8 h. However, in both culture times, higher prostanoid levels were detected after supplementation of medium with exogenous AA. Treatment with indomethacin, a COX inhibitor, induced a reduction on PGEx, as well as in fungus viability. The data provide evidence that P. brasiliensis produces prostaglandin-like molecules by metabolizing either endogenous or exogenous AA. Moreover, the results suggest the involvement of these mediators on fungal viability.

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is the agent of paracoccidioidomycosis, the most prevalent deep mycosis in Latin America. The production of eicosanoids during fungal infection has been associated with the biology of these microorganisms and modulation of host immune response. The aim of our study was to evaluate whether P. brasiliensis strains with high or low virulence produce leukotriene B4 (LTB4), using endogenous and/or exogenous sources of arachidonic acid (AA). Moreover, we assessed whether this fungus might use the same metabolic pathway, described for mammalian cells, that involves the lipoxygenase (LOX) enzyme. The association between the production of this eicosanoid and fungus survival and growth was also evaluated. Our results showed that P. brasiliensis, irrespective of its virulence, produces high levels of LTB4 using endogenous AA. In addition, in cultures treated with exogenous AA, LTB4 levels were significantly higher, showing that this fungus also uses exogenous sources of fatty acids. Treatment with MK886, which blocks the activity of lipoxygenase, by inhibiting five‐lipoxygenase‐activating protein (FLAP) or with nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA), a non‐selective lipoxygenase inhibitor, resulted in a significant reduction in LTB4 levels, indicating that the fungus produces this eicosanoid by using the LOX pathway or an enzyme with biochemically similar function. The significant reduction in viability detected in cultures treated with these inhibitors was, however, restored by adding exogenous LTB4, confirming the role of this eicosanoid in fungus survival. Moreover, the addition of LTB4 to cultures capable of producing LTs induces fungal growth. These results provide a foundation for additional studies on the contributions of LTB4 in P. brasiliensis virulence. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Acute viral bronchiolitis (AVB) is the most common infection of the lower airways in children under 2 years of age. Attempts to determine the severity of the disease based on clinical and radiological manifestations are a major challenge. Measurements of the anatomy of the trachea, main bronchi and bronchioles are not limited to pure anthropometry, but are also useful for better knowledge and applicability in pulmonary physiology, thoracic surgery, anesthesiology and in the care of critically ill patients. This is a cross-sectional, retrospective study, which included all patients admitted to a tertiary hospital in the city of Porto Alegre, over a period of one year, with a diagnosis of AVB. The interbronchial angle (ITB) of these patients was measured and clinical and epidemiological characteristics were analyzed. A total of 425 patients were included, diagnosed with BVA by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) confirmed by immunofluorescence. Most of these patients were male (59.5%) and the median age was 130 days, 91.11% of them required oxygen therapy through a nasal catheter, 3.3% used non-invasive ventilation (NIV) and 4% mechanical ventilation (MV) . Among the studied patients, we obtained only one death (0.2%). Those who required MV or NIV and support in an intensive care unit were considered serious. The mean ITB was lower for these patients than for less severe ones. It is concluded that the ABI has a correlation with the prognosis of patients with AVB and, after further studies, can be used as a severity score.

The mechanisms linking obesity to kidney damage are unknown. AGEs are responsible for renal damage in obese individuals. The receptor AGEs (RAGE) contributes to nuclear transcription factors that result in the production of proinflammatory cytokines and this seems to contribute to the development of renal disease. Thus, intervention with antioxidant can have an important effect in the prevention and treatment of pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory state in the kidneys resulting from obesity.