RT-PCR using a commercial kit for yellow head virus (YHV) detection in growth-retarded shrimp yielded an unusual 777 bp amplicon instead of expected amplicons of 277 bp for YHV type-1 (YHV-1) or 406 bp for YHV type-2 (YHV-2). Cloning and sequencing (GenBank EU170438) revealed approximately 80% identity to non-structural (NS) ORF1b sequences of both YHV-1 (GenBank AA083987) and YHV-2 (GenBank AF227196), indicating an atypical YHV type (A-YHV) phylogenetically equidistant from both types. An RT-PCR test specifically designed for A-YHV revealed that it was uncommon and that its occurrence in shrimp culture ponds did not correlate with growth retardation or mortality. By immunohistochemistry with YHV-specific monoclonal antibodies, the A-YHV gave positive reactions for envelope protein gp64 and capsid protein p20, but not for envelope protein gp116, even though gp116 and gp64 originate from a polyprotein of ORF3. Lack of gp116 immunoreactivity correlated with a large ORF3 deletion (GenBank EU123854) in the region of the protein targeted by an MAb against gp116. Transmission electron microscopy of A-YHV-infected shrimp revealed only unenveloped pre-virions. During manuscript revision, information received revealed that typing of YHV isolates based on sequences of ORF1b and ORF3 had yielded several geographical types, including one virulent type (YHV-1b) with an ORF3 deletion sequence that matched the sequence of A-YHV. Using these sequences and an additional A-YHV sequence (EU853170) from the ORF1b typing region, A-YHV potentially represents a recombinant between type 1b and type 5. SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis revealed that type 1b produced a gp116 deletion protein that did not bind with the MAb or polyclonal Ab to normal gp116. Overall, the information suggested that lack of A-YHV virulence was associated with the NS gene sequence linked to ORF1b rather than the deletion in ORF3.

Ocimum sanctum L. (OS) leaves have been shown to exert diverse potential benefits in a variety of stress conditions. The present study was conducted to elucidate the effects of the fixed oil extracted from OS leaves on the blood glucose levels and serum lipid profile of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. In addition, the anti-oxidative activity of OS leaves to protect various organs including the liver, kidney and heart was investigated. The fixed oil of the OS leaves was extracted using hexane, and the various fatty acid contents of the oil were determined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Male Wistar rats were allocated into three groups (n=7 per group): Normal control rats, diabetic rats and diabetic rats fed daily with the fixed oil for three weeks. The results showed that α-linolenic acid was the primary fatty acid contained in the fixed oil of OS. After 3 weeks of diabetic induction, the rats exhibited increased blood glucose levels and serum lipid profile, in addition to elevated serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase MB subunit (CK-MB), creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). The fixed oil significantly decreased the elevated levels of blood glucose, the serum lipid profile and the levels of serum creatinine and BUN (P<0.001), without exerting significant effects on the elevated serum levels of AST, ALT, LDH and CK-MB. Furthermore, the fixed oil increased the diabetically-reduced levels of serum insulin and decreased the rat kidney weight. Fixed oil suppressed the elevated thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) level and increased the activity of various antioxidative enzymes in the rat renal tissue. By contrast, the fixed oil had no effect on the elevated TBARS level and the inhibited activity of the antioxidative enzymes in the rat liver and cardiac tissues. Histopathological results indicated that the fixed oil preserved the renal tissue against oxidative stress in diabetes. In summary, the results of the present study suggest that the fixed oil extracted from OS leaves exerted anti-hyperglycemic, anti-hyperlipidemic and free radical scavenging effects in diabetic rats, thus providing renal protection against diabetes. The α-linolenic acid contained in the fixed oil may be responsible for these effects.

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Yellow head virus (YHV) is an invertebrate nidovirus that has caused mass mortality in penaeid shrimp since 1990. Several YHV types are known, but only the original type (YHV-type 1 or YHV-1) is highly virulent. Most studies have focused on acute YHV-1 infections and there is limited work on YHV-1 survivors. We compared moribund and surviving (14%) whiteleg shrimp Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei from an experimental challenge with YHV-1. Although grossly normal, all survivors were positive for YHV-1 by specific, reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assays, histological analysis or transmission electron microscopy (TEM), indicating that they were not resistant but tolerant to YHV-1. On the other hand, real-time PCR analysis revealed that mean YHV-1 copies/ng total RNA for survivors (2.8x10(4) +/- 6.9x10(4)) were approximately 40 times lower (P<0.05) than those in moribund shrimp (1.2x10(6) +/- 6.7x10(5)copies/ng total RNA). This was confirmed by strong positive immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization (ISH) reactions for YHV-1 in lymphoid organ tubules (LOT) of moribund shrimp and weak positive reaction only in lymphoid organ spheroids (LOS) of survivors. TEM revealed morphologically complete YHV virions in both groups. Furthermore, immuno-TEM and Western blot analysis revealed that YHV-1 structural proteins gp116 and p20 were present at comparable reactive levels in each group. Thus, YHV-1 tolerance was not associated with absence of gp116 as previously reported for palaemonid shrimp. Instead, it was associated with the presence of YHV-positive LOS and a relatively low viral load.