Madagascar has an extended network of over 100 protected areas with various IUCN status covering more than 10% of terrestrial landscapes and seascapes. The location of these areas is to a high-degree congruent with remaining forests covering some 15% of the island. The definitions of forests are numerous, at global, national, and regional scales; here we emphasize the widespread system considering the percentage of tree cover canopy, to better define the eastern humid vs. western dry forests in Madagascar and to understand how best to protect the terrestrial biodiversity within parks and reserves. Forests are home to over 80% of Madagascar's biodiversity. These ecosystems are under high threat due to ongoing and rapid deforestation and degradation. We present the interlinkages and complexity of governing National Parks to safeguard Madagascar's unique biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Protected areas (PAs) are a cornerstone for conservation biodiversity. Madagascar, as a hotspot for biodiversity, has a network of 114 terrestrial protected areas covering the main forest types occurring on the island. Deforestation continues unabated despite the network covering 11% of the island. Here we present a case study approach reporting on four PAs from the humid forests, dry western forests, and southwestern dry and spiny forests and thickets. To describe deforestation in and around the case sites, we have considered a time window of 30 years for analysis, focusing on six years with reliable data: 1990, 2000, 2010, 2015 (the year of latest PA network update), and 2017. We have considered forest versus other land covers within the PAs in “buffers” at a distance of 500 m, 2.5 km, 5 km, and 10 km from the border of the PA. These buffers were set from the border towards the center of the PA (inside the PAs) and from the border outside the PAs. The smallest PAs, Kasijy (IUCN IV), and Behara Tranomaro (no IUCN category), showed the least forest loss. Tsaratanana (IUCN I) had the highest deforestation rates within the last two years of analysis, with deforestation concentrated in the core area. Ranobe PK-32 (no IUCN category), originally with the largest forest extent, has lost most of its forest cover and showed the highest annual deforestation rate (3.5%) between 2015 and 2017. All four cases prove to be very challenging to manage. Future conservation activities require tailored interventions to account for site-specific current and potential future threats, as detailed in this contribution.

The rich endemic biodiversity of Madagascar is concentrated in different types of natural forests primarily conserved within the network of protected areas (PAs). Since 1990, remote sensing has been utilized to monitor forest cover. The latest forest cover map generated using these techniques provides accurate estimates of natural forest cover within the PAs network. However, the standardized application of Tree Canopy Density (TCD), as used in global assessments of forest cover, yields erroneous estimates for different forest types in Madagascar because the standard TCD cannot be globally applied to all types of forests. Our study aims to utilize global remote sensing data at the scale of PAs to identify specific TCD thresholds for individual PAs. Starting from the year 2000 data, the application of these thresholds will allow us to estimate deforestation in subsequent years at reduced costs. We used the official PA boundaries, a reliable forest cover map at the national scale, and the TCDs published at a global scale to infer the values of TCD to be applied in each PA. The standard TCD threshold above 30% overestimates humid and dry forests and underestimates dry spiny forests in Madagascar. Our specific TCD thresholds inferred for each PA accurately estimate the forest cover in the vast majority of PAs. Using these specific TCD thresholds will allow for improved monitoring of forest cover within the network of PAs. The methodology detailed here can also be applied in other geographic regions, and future improvements in data on forest cover—both remotely sensed and field-collected—will enhance our ability to estimate forest cover and its changes over time.

Ecotourism is widely considered a strong mechanism for the sustainable funding of protected areas (PAs). Implemented during the 1990s in Madagascar, nature-based tourism experienced positive growth over the last 30 years with increasing numbers of visits to the parks and reserves. Revenue earned from entrance fees to the network of PAs managed by Madagascar National Parks has never been sufficient to finance their management. Political crises and the COVID-19 pandemic in particular, have highlighted for park managers, the risk of relying on such earnings when they covered just 1% of the required funding in 2021. Alternative mechanisms of funding are analysed for all of Madagascar’s PAs with a view to facilitating sustainable conservation of the localities and protection of the island’s biodiversity.

Nature-based or ecotourism is widely considered a strong mechanism for the sustainable funding of protected areas (PAs). Implemented during the 1990s in Madagascar, nature-based tourism experienced positive growth over the last 30 years with increasing numbers of visits to the parks and reserve safeguarding the endemic biodiversity. Revenue earned from entrance fees to the network of PAs managed by Madagascar National Parks has never been sufficient to finance their management. Political crises and the COVID-19 pandemic in particular, have highlighted the risks for park managers of relying on such earnings when they covered just 1% of the funding required in 2021. Alternative mechanisms of funding are analysed for all Madagascar's PAs in order to facilitate sustainable conservation of the localities and protection of the island's biodiversity.