In gram-negative bacterial pathogens, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, cell-to-cell communication via the N-acylhomoserine lactone (AHL) signal molecules is involved in the cell population density-dependent control of genes associated with virulence. This phenomenon, termed quorum sensing, relies upon the accumulation of AHLs to a threshold concentration at which target structural genes are activated. By using biosensors capable of detecting a range of AHLs we observed that, in cultures of Y. pseudotuberculosis and P. aeruginosa, AHLs accumulate during the exponential phase but largely disappear during the stationary phase. When added to late-stationary-phase, cell-free culture supernatants of the respective pathogen, the major P. aeruginosa [N-butanoylhomoserine lactone (C4-HSL) and N-(3-oxododecanoyl)homoserine lactone (3-oxo-C12-HSL)] and Y. pseudotuberculosis [N-(3-oxohexanoyl)homoserine lactone (3-oxo-C6-HSL) and N-hexanoylhomoserine lactone (C6-HSL)] AHLs were inactivated. Short-acyl-chain compounds (e.g., C4-HSL) were turned over more extensively than long-chain molecules (e.g., 3-oxo-C12-HSL). Little AHL inactivation occurred with cell extracts, and no evidence for inactivation by specific enzymes was apparent. This AHL turnover was discovered to be due to pH-dependent lactonolysis. By acidifying the growth media to pH 2.0, lactonolysis could be reversed. By using carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, we found that the ring opening of homoserine lactone (HSL), N-propionyl HSL (C3-HSL), and C4-HSL increased as pH increased but diminished as the N-acyl chain was lengthened. At low pH levels, the lactone rings closed but not via a simple reversal of the ring opening reaction mechanism. Ring opening of C4-HSL, C6-HSL, 3-oxo-C6-HSL, and N-octanoylhomoserine lactone (C8-HSL), as determined by the reduction of pH in aqueous solutions with time, was also less rapid for AHLs with more electron-donating longer side chains. Raising the temperature from 22 to 37°C increased the rate of ring opening. Taken together, these data show that (i) to be functional under physiological conditions in mammalian tissue fluids, AHLs require an N-acyl side chain of at least four carbons in length and (ii) that the longer the acyl side chain the more stable the AHL signal molecule.Many gram-negative bacteria regulate gene expression in a cell-density-dependent manner by using N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) quorum-sensing signal molecules. AHLs diffuse into and out of bacterial cells and, as the population of bacteria increases, so does the AHL concentration. Once the AHLs reach a threshold concentration, they act as coinducers, usually by activating LuxR-type transcriptional regulators to induce target gene expression. AHL-dependent quorum sensing is known to regulate many different physiological processes, including the production of secondary metabolites, swimming, swarming, biofilm maturation, and virulence in human, plant, and animal pathogens (for reviews, see references 43 and 47)....

Previous studies have shown that human serum, guinea pig and human red cells, and human white cells contain low and high M, substances that induce gonococcal strains to become serum resistant (1-4) and change lipooligosaccharide (LOS)' pattern (5, 6) . In more recent studies, the same investigators have shown that the low Mr substance in-blood is cytidine monophospho-N-acetylneuraminic acid (CMP-NANA) or a related compound (7,8) . These studies suggest that in vivo, sufficient concentrations of CMP-NANA might induce serum resistance by sialylation of LOS. Because gonococci are not able to synthesize CMP-NANA and it is not present in the usual media, previous in vitro studies of gonococcal LOS may have dealt with different LOS structures than those that occur in vivo .Each gonococcal strain makes multiple types of LOS (9)(10)(11), and the physical (Mr) and antigenic heterogeneity of a strain's LOS reflects physicochemical differences in their glycan moieties (10, 12). mAbs 3F11 and 06B4 identify epitopes on meningococcal and gonococcal LOS that are immunochemically similar to Galo1-4G1cNAc-containing molecules present in human erythrocytes and on other human cells (13) . These epitopes are conserved on gonococcal LOS (11,14) and are variably expressed This work was supported by U. S .

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Neisseria gonorrhoeae survives anaerobically by reducing nitrite to nitrous oxide catalyzed by the nitrite and nitric oxide reductases, AniA and NorB. P aniA is activated by FNR (regulator of fumarate and nitrate reduction), the two-component regulatory system NarQ-NarP, and induced by nitrite; P norB is induced by NO independently of FNR by an uncharacterized mechanism. We report the results of microarray analysis, bioinformatic analysis, and chromatin immunoprecipitation, which revealed that only five genes with readily identified NarP-binding sites are differentially expressed in narP ؉ and narP strains. These include three genes implicated in the truncated gonococcal denitrification pathway: aniA, norB, and narQ. We also report that (i) nitrite induces aniA transcription in a narP mutant; (ii) nitrite induction involves indirect inactivation by nitric oxide of a gonococcal repressor, NsrR, identified from a multigenome bioinformatic study; (iii) in an nsrR mutant, aniA, norB, and dnrN (encoding a putative reactive nitrogen species response protein) were expressed constitutively in the absence of nitrite, suggesting that NsrR is the only NO-sensing transcription factor in N. gonorrhoeae; and (iv) NO rather than nitrite is the ligand to which NsrR responds. When expressed in Escherichia coli, gonococcal NarQ and chimaeras of E. coli and gonococcal NarQ are ligand-insensitive and constitutively active: a "locked-on" phenotype. We conclude that genes involved in the truncated denitrification pathway of N. gonorrhoeae are key components of the small NarQP regulon, that NarP indirectly regulates P norB by stimulating NO production by AniA, and that NsrR plays a critical role in enabling gonococci to evade NO generated as a host defense mechanism.In contrast to Escherichia coli that can inhabit a variety of environments and utilize numerous carbon sources and electron acceptors, some niche dwellers such as the obligate human pathogen Neisseria gonorrhoeae are far less versatile. The gonococcus can grow aerobically using glucose, lactate, or pyruvate as carbon sources and electron donors, and for many years it was thought to be an obligate aerobe. However, following the isolation of gonococci from patients alongside obligate anaerobes, it became clear that they could survive in the absence of oxygen in vivo using nitrite as an alternative electron acceptor (1, 2). Although gonococci express both a copper-containing nitrite reductase, AniA (NGO1276), and a single subunit nitric oxide reductase, NorB (NGO1275), which reduce nitrite via nitric oxide to nitrous oxide (2-5), denitrification is incomplete, because they lack genes for nitrate reduction, and there is a premature stop codon in the nitrous oxide reductase gene (nosZ, XNG1300), and the putative regulator of the nitrous oxide reduction genes, nosR (XNG1301), is also degenerate (see Fig. 1A). During oxygen-limited or anaerobic growth, AniA is the major anaerobically induced outer membrane protein (6). It is expressed by bacteria infecting patients, confirming th...

Neisseria meningitidis is an important cause of septicaemia and meningitis. To cause disease, the bacterium must acquire essential nutrients for replication in the systemic circulation, while avoiding exclusion by host innate immunity. Here we show that the utilization of carbon sources by N. meningitidis determines its ability to withstand complement-mediated lysis, through the intimate relationship between metabolism and virulence in the bacterium. The gene encoding the lactate permease, lctP, was identified and disrupted. The lctP mutant had a reduced growth rate in cerebrospinal fluid compared with the wild type, and was attenuated during bloodstream infection through loss of resistance against complement-mediated killing. The link between lactate and complement was demonstrated by the restoration of virulence of the lctP mutant in complement (C3−/−)-deficient animals. The underlying mechanism for attenuation is mediated through the sialic acid biosynthesis pathway, which is directly connected to central carbon metabolism. The findings highlight the intimate relationship between bacterial physiology and resistance to innate immune killing in the meningococcus.