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Background The lymphatic system plays a key role in tissue fluid homeostasis and lymphatic dysfunction due to genetic defects or lymphatic vessel obstruction can cause lymphedema, disfiguring tissue swellings often associated with fibrosis and recurrent infections without available cures to date. In this study, retinoic acids (RAs) were determined to be a potent therapeutic agent that is immediately applicable to reduce secondary lymphedema. Methods and Results We report that RAs promote proliferation, migration and tube formation of cultured lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) by activating FGF-receptor signaling. Moreover, RAs control the expression of cell-cycle checkpoint regulators such as p27Kip1, p57Kip2 and the aurora kinases through both an Akt-mediated non-genomic action and a transcription-dependent genomic action that is mediated by Prox1, a master regulator of lymphatic development. Moreover, 9-cisRA was found to activate in vivo lymphangiogenesis in animals based on mouse trachea, matrigel plug and cornea pocket assays. Finally, we demonstrate that 9-cisRA can provide a strong therapeutic efficacy in ameliorating the experimental mouse tail lymphedema by enhancing lymphatic vessel regeneration. Conclusions These in vitro and animal studies demonstrate that 9-cisRA potently activates lymphangiogenesis and promotes lymphatic regeneration in an experimental lymphedema model, presenting it as a promising novel therapeutic agent to treat human lymphedema patients.

The overuse of antibiotics plays a major role in the emergence and spread of multidrug-resistant bacteria. A molecularly targeted, specific treatment method for bacterial pathogens can prevent this problem by reducing the selective pressure during microbial growth. Herein, we introduce a nonviral treatment strategy delivering genome editing material for targeting antibacterial resistance. We apply the CRISPR-Cas9 system, which has been recognized as an innovative tool for highly specific and efficient genome engineering in different organisms, as the delivery cargo. We utilize polymer-derivatized Cas9, by direct covalent modification of the protein with cationic polymer, for subsequent complexation with single-guide RNA targeting antibiotic resistance. We show that nanosized CRISPR complexes (= Cr-Nanocomplex) were successfully formed, while maintaining the functional activity of Cas9 endonuclease to induce double-strand DNA cleavage. We also demonstrate that the Cr-Nanocomplex designed to target mecA-the major gene involved in methicillin resistance-can be efficiently delivered into Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and allow the editing of the bacterial genome with much higher efficiency compared to using native Cas9 complexes or conventional lipid-based formulations. The present study shows for the first time that a covalently modified CRISPR system allows nonviral, therapeutic genome editing, and can be potentially applied as a target specific antimicrobial.

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