This paper starts by describing the composition of monetary policy committees (MPCs) in inflation-targeting and non-targeting countries. The experience of MPC members on their inflation performance is then compared, opposing inflation targeters with non-targeters. Our sample covers the major Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countries, in the period 1999-2008. Our results first show that MPCs are different in inflation-targeting (versus non-targeting) countries. They also reveal that policy-makers' backgrounds influence inflation, and that the influence of MPCs' experience is much greater in inflation-targeting countries, while size effects are more important for committees that do not target inflation.JEL classification: E58.

This paper presents and estimates destination choice models based on a large sample of intra-urban trips. Particular attention is paid to incorporating the effects of the spatial dimension. The data used relate to non-work trips in the agglomeration of Antwerp (Belgium). A geographical analysis is performed in order to represent the city and its suburbs by a limited set of zones of destinations and to characterize these zones in terms of land use. Different types of discrete choice model are compared in terms of utility function, global formulation and performance. The mixed nested logit formulation with random coefficients appears to be the most attractive. The results confirm the difficulty of grasping spatial realities by simple quantitative measurements but also illustrate the importance of 'space' when choosing a destination. The empirical results also show that land use and urban development policies clearly have their effect on urban mobility.

a b s t r a c tThis paper proposes different policy scenarios to cut CO 2 emissions caused by the urban mobility of passengers. More precisely, we compare the effects of the 'direct tool' of carbon tax, to a combination of 'indirect tools' -not originally aimed at reducing CO 2 (i.e. congestion charging, parking charges and a reduction in public transport travel time) in terms of CO 2 impacts through a change in the modal split. In our model, modal choices depend on individual characteristics, trip features (including the effects of policy tools), and land use at origin and destination zones. Personal ''CO 2 emissions budgets'' resulting from the trips observed in the metropolitan area of Lille (France) in 2006 are calculated and compared to the situation related to the different policy scenarios. We find that an increase of 50% in parking charges combined with a cordon toll of €1.20 and a 10% travel time decrease in public transport services (made after recycling toll-revenues) is the winning scenario. The combined effects of all the policy scenarios are superior to their separate effects.Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. IntroductionUncertainty about the damage caused by climate change is related to three dimensions. From a spatial perspective, the generation of CO 2 emissions and the impacts of climate change do not necessarily occur in the same place or within the same time horizon; the next generation may be more affected than the present one. Also, the magnitude of events (temperature variations, hurricanes, flooding, etc.) remains largely unknown. This makes the CO 2 externality difficult to evaluate. However, in the EU-27, transport activities represented more than a third of overall CO 2 emissions in 2009 (European Commission, 2012), with an increasing trend since 1990 (EEA, 2012).Europe has established far-reaching goals in relation to reducing the risk of climate change, and has identified a potential CO 2 reduction of 60% related to transport. In France, transport accounted for almost 40% of national CO 2 emissions in 2009, and road transport accounted for 80% of this total (European Commission, 2012). The French Grenelle I Act (MEDDTL, 2011) has set the binding target of a 20% reduction in CO 2 emissions from transport activities by 2020, i.e. to return to the level in 1990.In this paper, we propose a second-best approach to cutting CO 2 emissions from the urban mobility of passengers. The originality of this work is that it considers the link between urban transport policies and climate policies. We analyze travel demand applying a mode choice model to the metropolitan territory of Lille in the North of France. The modal choices are http://dx.

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originally proposed by Christaller (1933), is based on a similar idea. As a settlement increases in size, the range and number of its functions will increase. The number of high-order services will also increase. Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info -Université catholique de Louvain --130.104.186.48 -03/04/2013 13h53. © De Boeck Supérieur 88_____________ Recherches Économiques de Louvain -Louvain Economic Review 77(2-3), 20112 E.g., "police protection is broken down into 65 categories including foot and motorcycle patrol, criminal investigation, youth aid bureau, ambulance and pulmotor service, school crossing guards, radio communication, radar speed units, and manual traffic control" (Schmandt and Stephens, 1960, pp.370-371). 3 In 2010 there are 36,500 French municipalities, i.e. nearly half the total European municipalities (EU15). Thus, 87% of French municipalities had less than 2,000 inhabitants, accounting for 25% of the metropolitan French population (DGCL -DESL, 2010). Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info -Université catholique de Louvain --130.104.186.48 -03/04/2013 13h53.