The energy absorption in a foam-filled thin-walled circular Al tube was investigated based on the experimentally determined strengthening coefficient of filling using Al and polystyrene closed-cell foams with three different densities. Foam filling was found to change the deformation mode of tube from diamond (empty tube) into concertina, regardless the foam type and density used. Although foam filling resulted in higher energy absorption than the sum of the energy absorptions of the tube alone and foam alone, it was not effective in increasing the specific energy than simply thickening the tube wall. It was shown that for efficient foam filling an appropriate foam-tube combination must be selected by taking into account the magnitude of strengthening coefficient of foam filling and the foam filler plateau load.

The axial crushing behavior of empty and Al close-cell foam-filled single Al tubes and Al multi-tube designs (hexagonal and square) were investigated through quasi-static compression testing. The effects of foam filling on the deformation mode and the crushing and average crushing loads of single tubes and multi-tube designs were determined. The foam filling was found to shift the deformation mode of empty single tube and empty multi-tube designs from diamond into concertina. In multi-tube designs the constraint effects and the frictional forces were found to increase the average crushing loads over those of single tubes. It was also found that foam filling induced a higher strengthening coefficient in multi-tube than single tubes. Although foam filling increased the energy absorption in single tubes and multi-tube designs, it was not effective in increasing the specific absorbed energy over that of the empty tubes. However, multi-tube designs were found to be energetically more effective than single tubes at similar foam-filler densities, proving a higher interaction effect in multi-tube designs. r

The interaction coefficients of polystyrene foam filling of thin-walled aluminum cylindrical tubes were investigated experimentally through compression testing of partially foam-filled tubes with and without adhesive. The experimental load-displacement curves and observation of the crushed sections of filled tubes have shown that partial foam filling reduced the fold length and hence increased the average crushing loads of tubes, proving the interaction effect between tube wall and filler. The interaction coefficients for the partial foam filling were further calculated to be in the level and/or higher than that of the foam plateau load of transverse direction.

The axial crushing behavior of empty and Al close-cell foam-filled Al multi-tube designs (hexagonal and square) and E-glass woven fabric polyester composite and Al hybrid tubes were investigated through quasi-static compression testing. The effects of foam filling on the deformation mode and the crushing and average crushing loads of single tubes and multi-tube designs were determined. Although foam filling increased the energy absorption in single Al tube and multi-tube designs, it was not effective in increasing the specific absorbed energy over that of the empty Al tube. However, multi-tube designs were found to be energetically more effective than single tubes at similar foam filler densities, proving a higher interaction effect in multi-tube designs. Empty composite and empty hybrid tubes crushed predominantly in progressive crushing mode, without applying any triggering mechanism. Foam filling was found to be ineffective in increasing the crushing loads of the composite tubes over the sum of the crushing loads of empty composite tube and foam. However, foam filling stabilized the composite progressive crushing mode. In empty hybrid tubes, the deformation mode of the inner Al tube was found to be a more complex form of the diamond mode of deformation of empty Al tube, leading to higher crushing load values than the sum of the crushing load values of empty composite tube and empty metal tube.