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This paper discusses the meaning of the concept of ‘second-order observation’ used by Niklas Luhmann (1927–1998). Luhmann identifies second-order observation as a defining characteristic of modern world society. According to Luhmann, all social systems construct a social reality on the basis of the observation of observations. Rating agencies in the economy or the peer-review process in the academic system are examples of social mechanisms manifesting second-order observation. Social media also represent organized second-order observation. The paper suggests that in a society based on second-order observation, ‘genuine pretending’ is an adequate mode of existence. This notion is derived from the Daoist text Zhuangzi. It indicates a disassociation from social roles which allows their performers to exercise these roles with ease and, at the same time, maintain a state of sanity.

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This paper will outline three basic themes of Daoist philosophy: (a) Daoist non-anthropocentrism or the notion of dao 道(or tian dao 天道) (b) Daoist non-agency or wu wei 無為, and (c) the Daoist "acosmotic" notion of ziran 自然. It explores how these themes are not only cosmologically relevant, but also epistemologically, existentially, and, in particular, socio-politically significant.Keywords Daoism · Non-anthropocentrism · Non-action (wu-wei) · Self-so (ziran) This paper will outline three basic themes of Daoist philosophy: a) Daoist nonanthropocentrism or the notion of dao 道(or tian dao 天道) b) Daoist non-agency or wu wei 無為, and c) the Daoist "acosmotic" notion of ziran 自然.Daoist non-anthropocentrism: the notion of (tian) dao A paradigmatic expression of Daoist non-anthropocentrism is found in the 25th chapter of the Daodejing which culminates in the famous lines: "Humans follow the earth as a rule, the earth follows heaven as a rule, heaven follows the dao as a rule, the dao follows its self-so as a rule." (ren fa di, di fa tian, tian fa dao, dao fa ziran, 人法地, 地法天, 天法道, 道法自然) This passage is a succinct summary of the cosmological aspect of Daoist non-anthropocentrism. Humans are conceived of as living in simply organized agricultural communities, and the sustenance of their life is based on the conditions set by the "earth". They literally live of the land; and their activities, such as what they do where at which time on the fields, are structured and