Tropical mountains are hot spots of biodiversity and endemism, but the evolutionary origins of their unique biotas are poorly understood. In varying degrees, local and regional extinction, long-distance colonization, and local recruitment may all contribute to the exceptional character of these communities. Also, it is debated whether mountain endemics mostly originate from local lowland taxa, or from lineages that reach the mountain by long-range dispersal from cool localities elsewhere. Here we investigate the evolutionary routes to endemism by sampling an entire tropical mountain biota on the 4,095-metre-high Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, East Malaysia. We discover that most of its unique biodiversity is younger than the mountain itself (6 million years), and comprises a mix of immigrant pre-adapted lineages and descendants from local lowland ancestors, although substantial shifts from lower to higher vegetation zones in this latter group were rare. These insights could improve forecasts of the likelihood of extinction and 'evolutionary rescue' in montane biodiversity hot spots under climate change scenarios.

Madagopsinagen. n. andGracilopsinagen. n. are described as endemic Diopsidae taxa for Madagascar. Three Madagascan Diopsidae, earlier alternately placed inDiopsis,EurydiopsisorCyrtodiopsis(also asTeleopsis), are now referred toMadagopsinagen. n., while two of these three species proved to be conspecific. This gives rise toMadagopsina apollo(Brunetti) comb. n. andMadagopsina apographica(Séguy) comb. n. =anjahanaribei(Vanschuytbroeck) syn. n. The two species are redescribed.Madagopsina apographicaproved to have a mixed type series. Three new species are allocated to the genus asMadagopsina freidbergisp. n.,Madagopsina parvapollinasp. n. andMadagopsina tschirnhausisp. n. ForEurydiopsis vadoniVanschuytbroeck (later also placed inCyrtodiopsisandTeleopsis) the genusGracilopsinagen. n. is erected, leading toGracilopsina vadoni(Vanschuytbroeck) comb. n.Gracilopsina vadoniis redescribed and is shown to have a mixed type series. One new species is allocated to the genus asGracilopsina sinespinasp. n. A key is presented to the two genera and seven species. Madagascar now counts five Diopsidae genera and 12 species, of which two genera and 11 species are endemic. The genusCladodiopsisis no longer an endemic Madagascar genus as it also occurs in the Comoros. The phylogenetic position ofMadagopsinagen. n. is discussed based on molecular data. The intra- and intergeneric phylogeny of both new genera is discussed based on morphology and geometric morphometrics analyses of wing shape. Data are presented on sexual dimorphism with respect to eye span in the genera. The resulting allometric lines (eye span/body length) are also included in the phylogenetic analysis. The allometric lines for the closely relatedM. parvapollinasp. n., and the much largerM. apolloare compared and discussed. Allometric slopes and intercepts are identical for females of both species, while in males allometric slopes are identical, but intercepts differ considerably. An identical phenomenon was found in two closely related East AfricanDiopsisspecies with a small and a large species. Various morphological characters, including eggs, are discussed. The importance of intersternite 1–2 and synsternum 7+8 as differential characters is indicated.

Catalogue and distribution data are presented for the six Diopsidae species known to occur in the Arabian Peninsula: Sphyracephala beccarii, Chaetodiopsis meigenii, Diasemopsis aethiopica, Diopsis arabica, Diopsis mayae and Diopsis sp. (ichneumonea species group). The biogeographical aspects of their distribution are discussed. Records of Diopsis apicalis and Diopsis collaris are removed from the list for Arabia as these were based on misidentifications. Synonymies involving Diasemopsis aethiopica and Diasemopsis varians are discussed. Only one out of four specimens in the D. elegantula type series proved conspecific with D. aethiopica. The synonymy of D. aethiopica and D. varians is rejected. A lectotype for Diasemopsis elegantula is now designated. D. elegantula is proposed as junior synonym of D. varians. A fly cluster of more than 80,000 Sphyracephala beccarii, observed in Oman, is described. The occurrence of cluster formations in the Diopsidae is reviewed, while a possible explanation is indicated.

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