Selenium is an essential micronutrient that suppresses the redox-sensitive transcription factor NF-B-dependent proinflammatory gene expression. To understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory property of selenium, we examined the activity of a key kinase of the NF-B cascade, IB-kinase ␤ (IKK␤) subunit, as a function of cellular selenium status in murine primary bone marrow-derived macrophages and RAW264.7 macrophage-like cell line. In vitro kinase assays revealed that selenium supplementation decreased the activity of IKK␤ in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated macrophages. Stimulation by LPS of seleniumsupplemented macrophages resulted in a time-dependent increase in 15-deoxy-⌬ 12,14 -prostaglandin J 2 (15d-PGJ 2 ) formation, an endogenous inhibitor of IKK␤ activity. Further analysis revealed that inhibition of IKK␤ activity in seleniumsupplemented cells correlated with the Michael addition product of 15d-PGJ 2 with Cys-179 of IKK␤, while the formation of such an adduct was significantly decreased in the selenium-deficient macrophages. In addition, anti-inflammatory activities of selenium were also mediated by the 15d-PGJ 2 -dependent activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated nuclear receptor-␥ in macrophages. Experiments using specific cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors and genetic knockdown approaches indicated that COX-1, and not the COX-2 pathway, was responsible for the increased synthesis of 15d-PGJ 2 in selenium-supplemented macrophages. Taken together, our results suggest that selenium supplementation increases the production of 15d-PGJ 2 as an adaptive response to protect cells against oxidative stress-induced pro-inflammatory gene expression. More specifically, modification of protein thiols by 15d-PGJ 2 represents a previously undescribed code for redox regulation of gene expression by selenium.

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Selenium (Se) is an important element required for the optimal functioning of the immune system. Particularly in macrophages, which play a pivotal role in immune regulation, Se acts as a major antioxidant in the form of selenoproteins to mitigate the cytotoxic effects of reactive oxygen species. Here we describe the role of Se as an anti-inflammatory agent and its effect on the macrophage signal transduction pathways elicited by bacterial endotoxin, LPS. Our studies demonstrate that supplementation of Se to macrophages (Se-deficient) leads to a significant decrease in the LPS-induced expression of two important pro-inflammatory genes, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) via the inhibition of MAP kinase pathways. Furthermore, Se-deficiency in mice exacerbated the LPS-mediated infiltration of macrophages into the lungs suggesting that Se status is a crucial host factor that regulates inflammation. In summary, our results indicate that Se plays an important role as an anti-inflammatory agent by tightly regulating the expression of pro-inflammatory genes in immune cells.

Epidemiological studies suggest a correlation between severity of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and selenium deficiency, indicating a protective role for this anti-oxidant during HIV infection. Here we demonstrate that thioredoxin reductase-1 (TR1), a selenium-containing pyridine nucleotide-disulfide oxidoreductase that reduces protein disulfides to free thiols, negatively regulates the activity of the HIV-1 encoded transcriptional activator, Tat, in human macrophages. We used a small interfering RNA approach as well as a high affinity substrate of TR1, ebselen, to demonstrate that Tat-dependent transcription and HIV-1 replication were significantly increased in human macrophages when TR1 activity was reduced. The increase in HIV-1 replication in TR1 small interfering RNA-treated cells was independent of the redox-sensitive transcription factor, NF-B. These studies indicate that TR-1 acts as a negative regulator of Tat-dependent transcription. Furthermore, in vitro biochemical assays with recombinant Tat protein confirmed that TR1 targets two disulfide bonds within the Cys-rich motif required for efficient HIV-1 transactivation. Increasing TR1 expression along with other selenoproteins by supplementing with selenium suggests a potential inexpensive adjuvant therapy for HIV/AIDS patients.

Synopsis Gambogic acid (GA) is a polyprenylated xanthone abundant in the resin of Garcinia morella and G. hanburyi with a long history of use as a complementary and alternative medicine. The anti-tumor activity of GA has been well demonstrated and is thought to arise partly from the associated anti-inflammatory activity. Recent studies have indicated that the anti-tumor activity of GA is mediated by its ligation of the transferrin receptor TfR1. Since the cellular expression of TfR1 is down-regulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), we hypothesized that an alternative pathway exists in immune cells, such as macrophages, where GA could mitigate the expression of pro-inflammatory genes. Here we demonstrate that GA inhibits the LPS-dependent expression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) target pro-inflammatory genes in macrophages. Western immunoblot, NF-κB luciferase reporter, and gel shift analyses revealed that GA strongly blocked the activation of NF-κB induced by LPS; while 9,10-dihydroGA that lacks the reactive α,β-unsaturated carbonyl group was ineffective. Moreover, GA was able to decrease nuclear p65 levels in RAW264.7 macrophages, where the expression of TfR1 was down-regulated by RNA interference. In-vitro kinase assays coupled with interaction studies using biotinylated GA as well as proteomic analysis demonstrated that IKKβ, a key kinase of the NF-κB signaling axis, was covalently modified by GA at Cys179 causing significant inhibition of its kinase activity. Taken together, these data demonstrate the potent anti-inflammatory activity of GA.