It is long known that some parasite infections are able to modulate specific pathways of host's metabolism and immune responses. This modulation is not only important in order to understand the host-pathogen interactions and to develop treatments against the parasites themselves but also important in the development of treatments against autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Throughout the life cycle of schistosomes the mammalian hosts are exposed to several biomolecules that are excreted/secreted from the parasite infective stage, named cercariae, from their tegument, present in adult and larval stages, and finally from their eggs. These molecules can induce the activation and modulation of innate and adaptive responses as well as enabling the evasion of the parasite from host defense mechanisms. Immunomodulatory effects of helminth infections and egg molecules are clear, as well as their ability to downregulate proinflammatory cytokines, upregulate anti-inflammatory cytokines, and drive a Th2 type of immune response. We believe that schistosomes can be used as a model to understand the potential applications of helminths and helminth-derived molecules against autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.

Objective Characterise oral health, and the presence in the oral cavity of pathogenic non-oral microorganisms potentially associated with nosocomial infections and antimicrobial resistance in non-intubated patients admitted to a Brazilian university hospital. Materials and methods An intraoral examination and oral swab were performed on hospitalized individuals at three different times, T1 (within 48 h of hospitalization), T2 (48 h after T1) and T3 (7 days after hospitalization). The oral health status was defined by the Oral Health Assessment Tool (OHAT) and Tongue Coating Status (TCS). The swabs were processed and microorganisms potentially related to nosocomial infections were phenotypically identified through colony morphology, staining and microscopy. Results The most prevalent microorganisms were Escherichia coli , Enterococcus spp., Enterobacter spp., Pseudomonas spp., Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus . The oral health status was considered median, and the tongue coating index was considered high throughout the study period. The prevalence of potentially pathogenic non-oral microorganisms was high and constant from the first 48 h to the seventh day of hospitalization. Conclusions The results point out that the mouth can act as a reservoir of epidemiologically important pathogens within hospital settings, even in patients without mechanical ventilation, thus increasing the risk of nosocomial infections in susceptible individuals. KEY MESSAGES The present study investigated the oral health status and the presence of pathogenic non-oral microorganisms in the oral cavity of patients hospitalized in the ward, non-intubated and mostly independent of self-care. The presence in the mouth of microorganisms related to the epidemiology of nosocomial infections and resistance to antimicrobials was high and constant from the first 48 h to the 7th day of hospitalization. The results of this study point out that the mouth can act as a reservoir of epidemiologically important pathogens within hospital settings even in patients without mechanical ventilation, increasing the risk of nosocomial infections in susceptible individuals.

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