Mutations in USH2A are among the most common causes of syndromic and non-syndromic retinitis pigmentosa (RP). The two most recurrent mutations in USH2A, c.2299delG and c.2276G > T, both reside in exon 13. Skipping exon 13 from the USH2A transcript presents a potential treatment modality in which the resulting transcript is predicted to encode a slightly shortened usherin protein. Morpholino-induced skipping of ush2a exon 13 in zebrafish ush2a rmc1 mutants resulted in the production of usherinDexon 13 protein and a completely restored retinal function. Antisense oligonucleotides were investigated for their potential to selectively induce human USH2A exon 13 skipping. Lead candidate QR-421a induced a concentration-dependent exon 13 skipping in induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived photoreceptor precursors from an Usher syndrome patient homozygous for the c.2299delG mutation. Mouse surrogate mQR-421a reached the retinal outer nuclear layer after a single intravitreal injection and induced a detectable level of exon skipping until at least 6 months post-injection. In conclusion, QR-421a-induced exon skipping proves to be a highly promising treatment option for RP caused by mutations in USH2A exon 13.

Caffeine is the most commonly used psychoactive stimulant worldwide. It reduces sleep and sleepiness by blocking access to the adenosine receptor. The level of adenosine increases during sleep deprivation, and is thought to induce sleepiness and initiate sleep. Light-induced phase shifts of the rest-activity circadian rhythms are mediated by light-responsive neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus, where the circadian clock of mammals resides. Previous studies have shown that sleep deprivation reduces circadian clock phase-shifting capacity and decreases SCN neuronal activity. In addition, application of adenosine agonists and antagonists mimics and blocks, respectively, the effect of sleep deprivation on light-induced phase shifts in behaviour, suggesting a role for adenosine. In the present study, we examined the role of sleep deprivation in and the effect of caffeine on light responsiveness of the SCN. We performed in vivo electrical activity recordings of the SCN in freely moving mice, and showed that the sustained response to light of SCN neuronal activity was attenuated after 6 h of sleep deprivation prior to light exposure. Subsequent intraperitoneal application of caffeine was able to restore the response to light. Finally, we performed behavioural recordings in constant conditions, and found enhanced period lengthening during chronic treatment with caffeine in drinking water in constant light conditions. The data suggest that increased homeostatic sleep pressure changes circadian pacemaker functioning by reducing SCN neuronal responsiveness to light. The electrophysiological and behavioural data together provide evidence that caffeine enhances clock sensitivity to light.

SummaryThe change in irradiance at dawn and dusk provides the primary cue for the entrainment of the mammalian circadian pacemaker. Irradiance detection has been ascribed largely to melanopsin-based phototransduction [1–5]. Here we examine the role of ultraviolet-sensitive (UVS) cones in the modulation of circadian behavior, sleep, and suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) electrical activity. UV light exposure leads to phase-shifting responses comparable to those of white light. Moreover, UV light exposure induces sleep in wild-type and melanopsin-deficient (Opn4−/−) mice with equal efficacy. Electrical recordings from the SCN of wild-type mice show that UV light elicits irradiance-dependent sustained responses that are similar to those induced by white light, with characteristic fast transient components occurring at the light transitions. These responses are retained in Opn4−/− mice and preserved under saturating photopic conditions. The sensitivity of phase-shifting responses to UV light is unaffected by the loss of rods but is severely attenuated by the additional loss of cones. Our data show that UVS cones play an important role in circadian and sleep regulation in mice.

The neuropeptide vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) is critical for the proper functioning of the neural circuit that generates circadian rhythms. Mice lacking VIP show profound deficits in the ability to generate many behavioral and physiological rhythms. To explore how the loss of VIP impacts on the intact circadian system, we carried out in vivo multiunit neural activity (MUA) recordings from the suprachiasmatic nucleus of freely moving VIP knockout (KO) mice. The MUA rhythms were largely unaltered in the VIP KO mice, with no significant differences being seen in the amplitude or phase of the rhythms in light-dark conditions. Robust differences between the genotypes were revealed when the mice were transferred from light-dark to constant darkness conditions. In addition, the ability of the VIP KO mice to encode changes in photoperiod was examined. Strikingly, the behavioral and physiological rhythms of VIP KO mice showed no adaptation to short or long photoperiods. The data indicate that the intact circadian system can compensate for some of the consequences of the loss of VIP, whereas this peptide is indispensable for endogenous encoding of seasonal information.

Light information is transmitted to the central clock of the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) for daily synchronization to the external solar cycle. Essential for synchronization is the capacity of SCN neurons to respond in a sustained and irradiance‐dependent manner to light. Melanopsin has been considered to mediate this photosensory task of irradiance detection. By contrast, the contribution of the classical photoreceptors in irradiance encoding is less clear. Here we investigate the role of classical photoreceptors by in vivo electrophysiological responses in freely moving animals to specific wavelengths of light (UV, λmax 365 nm; blue, λmax 467 nm; and green, λmax 505 nm) in both melanopsin‐deficient (Opn4–/–) mice and mice lacking rods and cones (rd/rd cl). Short‐ and long‐wavelength light induced sustained irradiance‐dependent responses in congenic wild‐type mice (+19.6%). Unexpectedly, sustained responses to light persisted in Opn4–/– mice (+18.4%). These results provide unambiguous evidence that classical photoreceptors can transmit irradiance information to the SCN. In addition, at light intensities that would stimulate rod and cone photoreceptors, the SCN of rd/rd cl mice showed greatly reduced sustained responses to light (+7.8%). Collectively, our data demonstrate a role for classical photoreceptors in illuminance detection by the SCN.—van Diepen, H. C., Ramkisoensing, A., Peirson, S. N., Foster, R. G., Meijer, J. H., Irradiance encoding in the suprachiasmatic nuclei by rod and cone photoreceptors. FASEB J. 27, 4204–4212 (2013). http://www.fasebj.org