The Dielmo project, initiated in 1990, consisted of long-term investigations on host-parasite relationships and the mechanisms of protective immunity in the 247 residents of a Senegalese village in which malaria is holoendemic. Anopheles gambiae s.1. and An. funestus constituted more than 98% of 11,685 anophelines collected and were present all year round. Inoculation rates of Plasmodium falciparum, P. malariae, and P. ovale averaged respectively 0.51, 0.10, and 0.04 infective bites per person per night. During a four-month period of intensive parasitologic and clinical monitoring, Plasmodium falciparum, P. malariae, and P. ovale were observed in 72.0%, 21.1% and 6.0%, respectively, of the 8,539 thick smears examined. Individual longitudinal data revealed that 98.6% of the villagers harbored trophozoites of P. falciparum at least once during the period of the study. Infections by P. malariae and P. ovale were both observed in individuals of all age groups and their cumulative prevalences reached 50.5% and 40.3%, Î-espectively. Malaria was responsible for 162 (60.9%) of 266 febrile episodes; 159 of these attacks were due to P. falciparum, three to P. ovale, and none to P. malariae. The incidence of malaria attacks was 40 times higher in children 0-4 years of age than in adults more than 40 years old. Our findings suggest that sterile immunity and clinical protection are never fully achieved in humans continuously exposed since birth to intense transmission.

The dispersion of anopheline mosquitoes from their breeding places and its impact on malaria epidemiology has been investigated in Dakar, Senegal, where malaria is hypoendemic and almost exclusively transmitted by Anopheles arabiensis. Pyrethrum spray collections were carried out along a 9 l0-meter area starting from a district bordering on a permanent marsh and continuing into the center of the city. According to the distance from the marsh, vector density (the number of An. arabiensis per 100 rooms) at 0-160,

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To measure morbidity due to malaria and to study its relationship with transmission and parasitemia in children living in an area of low malaria endemicity, a cohort study of 343 schoolchildren was undertaken during a one-year period in Dakar, Senegal. From parallel investigations on transmission and the frequency of malana as a cause for outpatient visits, three different seasons were chosen for close monitoring of different clinical, parasitologic, and Sero-immunologic parameters. The daily incidence rates of malaria parasitemia and primary attacks were at a maximum level during the high transmission season (0.00 198 and 0.00 185 new cases/person/day, respectively) and decreased considerably during the season of low transmission. For each given period, the values of these two rates were close to each other, suggesting that each new infection was followed by a clinical attack. During the period of maximum transmission, clinical malaria prevalence was 1.36% and malaria was responsible for 36% of school absences due to medical reasons. At the end of the period of minimum transmission, clinical malaria prevalence was O. 15% and malaria was responsible for 3% ofschool absences due to medical reasons. In contrast, parasite prevalence hardly varied with the season (minimum 3.69'0, maximum 7.50/0. In a one-year period, the total number of new malarial infections was estimated between 173 and 230: Because of the existence of a vector density gradient in the area concerned, the annual malaria incidence varied considerably according to the children's place of residence. Although this rate reached one infection per year in children living near a marsh where Anopheles breeding sites were localized, we did not observe a higher clinical tolerance in these children than in those less exposed to malaria. These findings show that schoolchildren in Dakar have no protective immunity and that for them, malaria is a major cause of morbidity despite low endemicity. The implications for malaria control strategies based on the reduction of human-vector contact are discussed.The level of malaria endemicity in tropical Africa is generally much lower in urban areas than in rural ones.'.* The urbanization process tends to reduce transmission by eliminating Anopheles breeding sites, by spacing out the persistent anopheline populations within a denser human population, and by limiting their dispersion from breeding place^.^-^ This phenomenon and its consequences have been well-documented by recent studies in regard to entomologic, parasitologic, and Sero-immunologic features. In contrast, except for impact on severe malaria,6 the clinical consequences of urbanization have not been studied.The relationship between malaria morbidity the entomologic inoculation rate, incidence and recovery rates of malaria parasitemia, and the incidence of malaria attacks i n stable endemic areas. Transmissionlevels in tropical Africa vary considerably, according to ecologic conditions, from approximately to IO3 infective bites per person per year. At a given a...