BackgroundEstrogen receptor-α (ERα) is essential for mammary gland development and is a major oncogene in breast cancer. Since ERα is not colocalized with the cell proliferation marker Ki-67 in the normal mammary glands and the majority of primary breast tumors, it is generally believed that paracrine regulation is involved in ERα mediated cell proliferation. In the paracrine model, ERα-positive cells don't proliferate but will release some paracrine growth factors to stimulate the neighboring cells to proliferate. In a subpopulation of cancer cells in some primary breast tumors, however, ERα does colocalize with the cell proliferation marker Ki-67, suggesting an autocrine regulation by ERα in some primary breast tumors.MethodsColocalization of ERα with Ki-67 in ERα-positive breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7, T47D, and ZR75-1) was evaluated by immunofluorescent staining. Cell cycle phase dependent expression of ERα was determined by co-immunofluorescent staining of ERα and the major cyclins (D, E, A, B), and by flow cytometry analysis of ERαhigh cells. To further confirm the autocrine action of ERα, MCF-7 cells were growth arrested by ICI182780 treatment, followed by treatment with EGFR inhibitor, before estrogen stimulation and analyses for colocalization of Ki-67 and ERα and cell cycle progression.ResultsColocalization of ERα with Ki-67 was present in all three ERα-positive breast cancer cell lines. Unlike that in the normal mammary glands and the majority of primary breast tumors, ERα is highly expressed throughout the cell cycle in MCF-7 cells. Without E2 stimulation, MCF-7 cells released from ICI182780 treatment remain at G1 phase. E2 stimulation of ICI182780 treated cells, however, promotes the expression and colocalization of ERα and Ki-67 as well as the cell cycle progressing through the S and G2/M phases. Inhibition of EGFR signaling does not inhibit the autocrine action of ERα.ConclusionOur data indicate that ERα can mediate estrogen-induced cell proliferation in an autocrine mode in ERα-positive breast cancer cell lines. All of the three ERα-positive cell lines used in our study showed colocalization of ERα and Ki-67, indicating that these cell lines might be originated from primary tumor cells with autocrine regulation.

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Prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 ) is shown to be essential for female reproduction. Cyclooxygenase (COX) is a ratelimiting enzyme in prostaglandin synthesis from arachidonic acid and exists in two isoforms: COX-1 and COX-2. Prostaglandin E synthase (PGES) is a terminal prostanoid synthase and can catalyse the isomerization of the COX product PGH 2 to PGE 2 , including microsomal PGES-1 (mPGES-1), cytosolic PGES (cPGES) and mPGES-2. This study examined the protein expression of COX-1, COX-2, mPGES-1, cPGES and mPGES-2 in preimplantation mouse embryos by immunohistochemistry. Embryos at different stages collected from oviducts or uteri were transferred into a flushed oviduct of non-pregnant mice. The oviducts containing embryos were paraffin-embedded and processed for immunostaining. COX-1 immunostaining was at a basal level in zygotes and a low level at the 2-cell stage, reaching a high level from the 4-cell to blastocyst stage. COX-2 immunostaining was at a low level at the zygote stage and was maintained at a high level from the 2-cell to blastocyst stages. A low level of mPGES-1 immunostaining was observed from the zygote to 8-cell stages. The signal for mPGES-1 immunostaining became stronger at the morula stage and was strongly seen at the blastocyst stage. cPGES immunostaining was strongly observed in zygotes, 2-cell and 8-cell embryos. There was a slight decrease in cPGES immunostaining at the 4-cell, morula and blastocyst stages. mPGES-2 immunostaining was at a low level from the zygote to morula stages and at a high level at the blastocyst stage. We found that the COX-1, COX-2, mPGES-1, cPGES and mPGES-2 protein signals were all at a high level at the blastocyst stage. PGE 2 produced during the preimplantation development may play roles during embryo transport and implantation.

Although Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is essential for mouse ovulation, fertilization, implantation and decidualization, the regulation and function of COX-2 in rat reproduction are still unknown. This study was designed to examine the action of COX-2 in rat ovulation, implantation and decidualization by using two specific inhibitors of COX-2 (nimesulide and niflumic acid). Compared to control, either nimesulide or niflumic acid significantly inhibited the ovulation in the superovulated rats. Although nimesulide had no obvious effects on the number of implantation sites and the vascular permeability, the expression of PPARdelta, HB-EGF and vimentin proteins was down-regulated in the nimesulide-treated groups. COX-1 protein was upregulated by nimesulide treatment. Nimesulide also had an inhibitory effect on decidualization during early pregnancy and under artificial decidualization. Moreover, nimesulide caused the increase of the gestation period and the reduction of litter size and birth weight compared to controls. Based on our data, rat implantation and decidualization were delayed by nimesulide treatment, resulting in the reduction of litter size and birth weight and the prolongation of gestational length, suggesting that COX-2 plays an important role in implantation and decidualization.

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