Permanent campaigning emerged as a concept in the 1970s in studies of US politics but is now recognized as a universal phenomenon. Despite its long history, there has been no attempt to build a holistic picture of the elements that constitute a permanent campaign. Generally, researchers focus on tactical elements, situating their use within an overall permanent campaign strategy, but there is a lack of a broader methodological framework for holistically measuring adherence to a permanent campaigning mode. This article presents results of a meta-analysis of relevant research to provide a framework to understand how permanent campaigning is practiced according to scholarship in the field. Our meta-analysis showed there were three reasonably discrete forms of campaigning activities that had been identified: those in which permanent campaign strategies are related to capacity building and strategy; a second, in which permanent campaigning relates to paid and owned media; and a third in which earned media is the main focus. In mapping these studies, we identify the common features of permanent campaigning, identifying strong and weak indicators and the extent these are employed by government, parties or elected representatives and within
Resumo Analisar a adoção da estratégia de campanha negativa não oficial no Twitter na disputa pela Prefeitura do Rio de Janeiro em 2016 é o objetivo deste artigo. Esse fenômeno, caracterizado pela promoção de ataques em períodos eleitorais por grupos independentes das coligações oficiais, é pouco estudado na literatura brasileira. A fim de ajudar a preencher essa lacuna, analisam-se as mensagens postadas no microblog durante o segundo turno do aludido pleito por eleitores e redes de apoio e ataque aos principais candidatos Marcelo Crivella (PRB) e Marcelo Freixo (PSOL). A metodologia usa técnicas de análise de conteúdo, análise de redes sociais e análise estatística de um corpusinicial de 530 mil tweetscoletados por meio da Twitter Search API, resultando em uma amostra final de 11.407 postagens classificadas como negativas. Entre as conclusões é possível afirmar que os principais agentes de campanha negativa não oficial no Twitter apresentam funções e perfis distintos, podendo ser divididos entre os influenciadores e os disseminadores de publicações de ataque.
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