ResumenEste artículo tiene por objetivo exponer el mapa conceptual de una investigación en que nos interrogamos acerca de los factores que han contribuido históricamente a que en España predomine una estructura empresarial dominada cuantitativamente por la pequeña y mediana empresa, en detrimento de una estructura de tamaño superior, considerando que esta situación empresarial ha sido contemplada como una desventaja competitiva, por limitar la productividad, dificultar la presencia en mercados exteriores, la financiación ajena, y repercutir negativamente en las inversiones en investigación y desarrollo. Dado este contexto, nos planteamos cómo y por medio de qué recursos, determinados empresarios han logrado desarrollar proyectos empresariales innovadores. Por otra parte, podemos considerar que en el estudio de la función empresarial hay dos perspectivas o ejes teóricos. El primero, que llamamos «perspectiva individual», caracteriza al empresario, ya sea por lo que hace o por unos determinados rasgos psicológicos específicos. El segundo, que denominamos «perspectiva estructural», caracteriza al empresario por factores del entorno, de carácter institucional, social, sectorial, cultural e ideológico-político. Sin embargo, consideramos que el estudio de la función emprendedora y la creación de empresas es deficiente si úni-camente se toman en cuenta los rasgos de personalidad y de comportamiento de los empresarios individuales, así como exclusivamente los factores estructurales. Palabras clave: creación de empresas, espíritu empresarial, empresario. Abstract. Theories on the «entrepreneur»This paper explains the conceptual frameworek of a research where we were looking at the factors that have favoured a entrepreneurial experience dominated by small and medium enterprise instead of a bigger structure, considering the fact that this structure has been seen as a competitive disadvantage that limits productivity, makes more difficult the transfer to external markets, the financing, and has a negative impact on Research and Development. Therefore, we were looking at how certain entrepreneurs have managed to develop innovative projects. On the other hand, we consider two perspectives on management studies. The first one characterises the businessman according to specific psychological traits. The second one, known as structural perspective, describes factors as derived from environment, from institutional, social, cultural, or ideologically based factors. We conclude that the study of the entrepreneurial function and the creation of companies is deficient if only structural or individual factors are taken into account.

The aim of this article is to analyse the factors affecting the motivations of immigrant entrepreneurs to generate an entrepreneurial gain (positive impact on home and host countries). We consider that positive reasons for emigrating can increase transnational entrepreneurship and mutual benefits for both societies. To test this hypothesis we present a model using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM).This model explains the relations between motivations, cultural similarities, institutions and transnational linkage potentials. We designed an ad hoc search of Argentinean entrepreneurs established in Spain, both as EU citizens and without legal EU status, using online social networks. We applied an online questionnaire to 214 such entrepreneurs. We conclude that institutional rules (formal and informal) greatly influence the location decisions of firms and immigrant entrepreneurs' motivations for starting transnational business because they provide the frame for the development of profitable opportunities.

RESUMENEste artículo tiene por objetivo exponer cómo los procesos de pobreza y exclusión social de las mujeres y de los hombres hay que analizarlos desde la perspectiva de género. Perspectiva que permite explicar de qué forma la posición económica de las mujeres viene determinada por la división sexual del trabajo, y se explica gracias a la existencia del orden patriarcal, al sistema de dominación masculina en el que hombres y mujeres son definidos como seres humanos diferentes, cada uno de ellos con sus propias oportunidades, roles y responsabilidades. PALABRAS CLAVEGénero, patriarcado, sexualidad, pobreza. ABSTRACTThis article takes as a target to exhibit how the processes of poverty and of social exclusion of the women and of the men it is necessary to analyze from the perspective of genre. Perspective that allows to explain how the economic position of the women comes determined by the sexual division of the work, and that is explained thanks to the existence of the patriarchal order, the system of masculine domination in which men and women are defined as human different beings, each of them with their own opportunities, rolls and responsibilities.

According to Arora et alii (1998), the chemical industry is one of the largest and most R&D-intensive manufacturing sectors in all the advanced economies, and its innovative patterns and productivity growth processes can have profound impacts on economic growth as a whole. The European chemical industry supplies virtually all sectors of the economy and accounts for 17.8% of the total sales of chemicals in the world. This paper gives an overview of the European chemical industry and the changing scenario of the world chemical industry by focusing on the top fifteen chemical companies in Europe. It describes the current problems this industry is facing in Europe especially after the economic crisis and shows that the region and the top companies are investing in R&D to bring about innovation and overcome the current challenges. It shows that R&D spending in absolute terms has hardly changed over the years and that the industry is still globally the largest investor in R&D activities. In terms of R&D, BASF has made the greatest investment followed by Bayer and Syngenta, while R&D intensity is highest for Syngenta and Bayer. BASF and Bayer have made most patent applications and have also had the highest number of patents granted. The quality of research in most chemical companies is very high and most of the large European companies make their first patent application in Europe rather than elsewhere. All the large chemical companies use Merger & Acquisition (M&A) to gain access to innovation. Industry-academia collaboration is one way to generate innovation in the chemical industry in Europe. Chemical clusters and the geographical distribution of chemical companies play a significant role in generating innovation.

Resumen. El objeto de este artículo es actualizar las críticas que el sindicato mayoritario ha venido recibiendo desde la segunda mitad del siglo XX. En especial incorporamos las provenientes de experimentaciones en el ámbito de la representación de los trabajadores surgidas a inicios del siglo XXI, denominados Nuevos Movimientos Sindicales. Entre éstas señalamos las vinculadas al cuestionamiento de su modelo de acción y participación, el alejamiento de la utopía trasformadora y la apuesta por la confrontación ante el cambio del paradigma económico, cuestionando los conceptos de diferentes recursos de poder sindical. Conclusiones sugeridas por la investigación llevada a cabo en Cataluña, cuya metodología empírica se ha basado en la revisión literaria y el análisis cualitativo de entrevistas semiestructuradas a diferentes representantes del ámbito sindical, académico y patronal. Palabras clave: asalariados; declive sindical; nuevos movimientos; condiciones de trabajo; conflictos; negociación colectiva.