Sleep deprivation is now recognized as an increasingly common condition inherent to modern society, and one that in many ways, is detrimental to certain physiological systems, namely, immune function. Although sleep is now viewed by a significant body of researchers as being essential for the proper working of a host of defense systems, the consequences of a lack of sleep on immune function remains to be fully comprehended. The aim of the current study was to investigate how paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD) for 24 and 96 h and sleep restriction (SR) for 21 days by the modified multiple-platform method, and their respective 24-h recovery periods, affect immune activation in rats. To this end, we assessed circulating white blood cell counts, lymphocyte count within immune organs, as well as Ig and complement production. The data revealed that PSD for 96 h increased complement C3 and corticosterone concentration in relation to the control group. In contrast, the spleen weight, total leukocytes, and lymphocytes decreased during SR for 21 days when compared with the control group, although production of a certain class of immunoglobulin, the IgM, did increase. After recovery sleep, lymphocyte count in axillary lymph nodes grew when rats had rebound sleep after PSD for 24 h, neutrophils increased after PSD 96 h and lymphocytes numbers were higher after SR 21 days. Such alterations during sleep deprivation suggest only minor alterations of nonspecific immune parameters during acute PSD, and a significant impairment in cellular response during chronic SR.

CS significantly increased bone loss resulting from ligature-induced periodontitis by a local increase in proinflammatory and proresorptive factors.

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Progesterone is present in a wide spectrum of biological activity within a variety of tissues. This hormone is also known to affect reproduction, sleep quality, respiration, mood, appetite, learning, memory and sexual activity. Progesterone exerts a sleep induction or hypnotic effect and is a potent respiratory stimulant that has been associated to a decrease in the number of central and obstructive sleep apnea episodes in men. The literature also contains a substantial amount of data on the effect of apnea in women with obesity-hypoventilation during menopause. This review attempts to outline the specific role of progesterone in normal sleep and breathing as well as its possible therapeutic effects in the treatment of sleep-disordered breathing.

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