Diabetes is a pathological condition that requires the continuous monitoring of glucose level in the blood. Its control has been tremendously improved by the application of point-of-care devices. Conventional enzyme-based sensors with electrochemical and optical transduction systems can successfully measure the glucose concentration in human blood, but they suffer from the low stability of the enzyme. Non-enzymatic wearable electrochemical and optical sensors, with low-cost, high stability, point-of-care testing and online monitoring of glucose levels in biological fluids, have recently been developed and can help to manage and control diabetes worldwide. Advances in nanoscience and nanotechnology have enabled the development of novel nanomaterials that can be implemented for the use in enzyme-free systems to detect glucose. This review summarizes recent developments of enzyme-free electrochemical and optical glucose sensors, as well as their respective wearable and commercially available devices, capable of detecting glucose at physiological pH conditions without the need to pretreat the biological fluids. Additionally, the evolution of electrochemical glucose sensor technology and a couple of widely used optical detection systems along with the glucose detection mechanism is also discussed. Finally, this review addresses limitations and challenges of current non-enzymatic electrochemical, optical, and wearable glucose sensor technologies and highlights opportunities for future research directions.

ExoDOX is safer and more effective than free DOX. Importantly, the first spontaneous transformed syngeneic model of high-grade serous ovarian cancer was utilized for providing a new therapeutic opportunity.

The application of nanotechnology in the medical field is called nanomedicine. Nowadays, this new branch of science is a point of interest for many investigators due to the important advances in which we assisted in the lasts decades, in particular for cancer treatment. Cancer nanomedicine has been applied in different fields such as drug delivery, nanoformulation and nanoanalytical contrast reagents. The application of nanotechnology to pharmaceutical science allowed to build up nanosystems based on at least two stage vectors (drug/nanomaterial), which often shown a better pharmacokinetics (PK), bioavailability and biodistribution. As result of these advantages, the nanomaterials accumulate passively in the tumor (enhanced permeability and retention, EPR) decreasing side effects of free drug. In the last decades, many new drug formulations have been translated from the bench to the bedside. In this review, we describe the main drug nanoformulations based on different types of organic nanoparticles (NPs), the advantages that the new formulations have over to their free drug counterparts and how nanodrugs have improved the clinical care.

We demonstrated that exoDOX was less toxic than DOX through its altered biodistribution.