Despite an increasing demand for Burgundy truffles (Tuber aestivum), gaps remain in our understanding of the fungus’ overall lifecycle and ecology. Here, we compile evidence from three independent surveys in Hungary and Switzerland. First, we measured the weight and maturity of 2,656 T. aestivum fruit bodies from a three-day harvest in August 2014 in a highly productive orchard in Hungary. All specimens ranging between 2 and 755 g were almost evenly distributed through five maturation classes. Then, we measured the weight and maturity of another 4,795 T. aestivum fruit bodies harvested on four occasions between June and October 2015 in the same truffière. Again, different maturation stages occurred at varying fruit body size and during the entire fruiting season. Finally, the predominantly unrelated weight and maturity of 81 T. aestivum fruit bodies from four fruiting seasons between 2010 and 2013 in Switzerland confirmed the Hungarian results. The spatiotemporal coexistence of 7,532 small-ripe and large-unripe T. aestivum, which accumulate to ~182 kg, differs from species-specific associations between the size and ripeness that have been reported for other mushrooms. Although size-independent truffle maturation stages may possibly relate to the perpetual belowground environment, the role of mycelial connectivity, soil property, microclimatology, as well as other abiotic factors and a combination thereof, is still unclear. Despite its massive sample size and proof of concept, this study, together with existing literature, suggests consideration of a wider ecological and biogeographical range, as well as the complex symbiotic fungus-host interaction, to further illuminate the hidden development of belowground truffle fruit bodies.

A key driver of biodiversity loss is human landscape transformation. Change detection and trajectory analysis are frequently applied methods for studying landscape change. We studied to what degree habitatspecific change detection and trajectory analysis provide different information on landscape change compared to the analysis with land-cover statistics. Our research was carried out at two spatial scales (regional, 1800 km 2 , 360 random points; local, 23 km 2 , polygon-based maps) in the Kiskunság, Hungary. Spatio-temporal databases were prepared using historical maps, aerial photos and satellite images from 1783, 1883, 1954, and 2009. Local expert knowledge of landscape history and recent vegetation was used during the historical reconstructions.We found large differences at both scales between land-cover based and habitat-specific analyses. Habitatspecific change detection revealed that grassland loss was not continuous in the different habitats, as land-cover based analysis implied. Ploughing affected open sand grasslands and sand steppes differently in different periods. It was only apparent from the habitat-specific analyses that from the grasslands only mesotrophic and Molinia meadows were relatively constant, up until the 1950s. The gradual increase in forest area revealed by land-cover CHD analyses was split into natural and anthropogenic processes by habitat-specific analyses. Habitat specific trajectory analysis also revealed ecologically important historical differences between habitats. Afforestation affected especially the open sand grasslands, whereas wetland habitats were relatively stable. The most important trajectory was the one in which closed sand steppes were ploughed during the 19 th century, and remained arable fields until present. Fifty percent of the regional trajectories of 18 th century open sand grasslands terminated in tree plantations at present, though 82% of the current open sand grasslands of the local site can be regarded as ancient.We concluded that dividing land-cover categories into finer habitat categories offered an opportunity for a more precise historical analysis of key habitats, and could reveal important ecological processes that cannot be reconstructed with land-cover based analyses. It also highlighted habitat-specific processes making natural and social drivers better interpretable. Information on the diversity of habitat-histories may serve as a basis for spatially more explicit conservation management.

invasive species are a major threat to biodiversity, human health, and economies worldwide. clonal growth is a common ability of most invasive plants. the clonal common milkweed Asclepias syriaca L. is the most widespread invasive species in pannonic sand grasslands. Despite of being an invader in disturbed semi-natural vegetation, this plant prefers agricultural fields or plantations. Herbicide treatment could be one of the most cost-effective and efficient methods for controlling the extended stands of milkweed in both agricultural and protected areas. the invasion of milkweed stand was monitored from 2011 to 2017 in a strictly protected UNESCO biosphere reserve in Hungary, and a single herbicide treatment was applied in May 2014. This single treatment was successful only in a short-term but not in a long-term period, as the number of milkweed shoots decreased following herbicide treatment. the herbicide translocation by rhizomatic roots induced the damage of dormant bud banks. the surviving buds developing shoots, growth of the milkweed stand showed a slow regeneration for a longer-term period. We concluded that the successful control of milkweed after herbicide treatment depends on repeated management of treated areas to suppress further spreading during subsequent seasons. Currently, invasive species are a major threat to biodiversity, human health, and economies 1-4. It has been estimated that the fight against invasive species and the damage caused by them in European Union accounts for a minimum of 9.6-12.7 billion euros annually, and this amount is expected to rise to 20 billion euros annually 1,5-7. The most important elements of protection against invasive species are prevention of introduction and early detection. In the case of established invasive species, the most successful options are eradication or isolation 8-13. Herbicide treatment is one of the most effective ways to control or eradicate invasive plants in large areas 10,14-19. Nevertheless, herbicide application of invasive species are rather arguable as their application negatively influence the growth of native species, composition of the species and abiotic factors (quality of the above and below ground water supply, soil and air) in protected areas 18,20,21. Consequently, herbicides have to be carefully chosen (dosage, types and combination) based on the native species community 16,19,20. Therefore, the herbicide application must be well planned and localized, the applied chemicals should be safe and effective. However, the use of these products in non-agricultural areas are very rarely accessible 10,22,23. This knowledge gap also requires not only extensive research but also effective exchange of information and experience 10,18,19. Clonality is common among invasive plants 24-26. The common reed Phragmites australis 27 , alligator weed Alternanthera philoxeroides 28-30 , Japanese knotweed Fallopia japonica 31-35 , Solidago species 14,36 , and Canada thistle Cirsium arvense 37,38 are examples of problematic invasive clonal species. Thei...

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the parasite. Millions of Toxoplasma oocysts may be shed in a single stool by infected cats, and may survive for months in moist environments, water, and soil (McCullough & Remington, 1975). Cats soiling and digging up gardens (Fig. 3) and children's sandboxes (Fig. 4) may leave behind diverse parasites which can infect humans. Asymptomatic acute toxoplasmosis infections in pregnant women may result in abortion, stillbirth, and infection of the foetus. Approximately 4,500 infants are born annually in the United States with congenital toxoplasmosis (Warfield & Gay, 1986). At least 200 to 400 of these infants have severe and irreversible lesions that require permanent institutionalization. Affected infants may also develop visual, auditory, neurological, or intellectual, impairment, months or even years after becoming infected (Warfield & Gay, 1986). Aside from the facts that free-ranging cats constitute a threat to the health of other animals including people, especially children, the damage that they cause to private property, and their impoundment and destruction, cost millions of dollars of taxpayers' money (Boddicker, 1983). Restriction and Education Programme The enforcement of leash laws, the registration of all cats, a reduction of licensing fees for castrated pets, and improved control patrols, would all help to alleviate the problem of wandering house cats. Nevertheless, cat restriction programmes are unpopular and often called inhumane, unfair, or unnecessary, by cat-owners. The basic key to solving the problem lies in educating pet-owners, of course, and also those who do not own a cat or cats but whose rights are infringed upon by the pets of irresponsible owners. Responsible ownership involves controlling the freedom of pets and providing them with sufficient rations of cooked, dried, or canned, meat that is free from parasites. Cats which extend their activities beyond the limits of their owner's property may cause trouble for neighbours, destroy wildlife, and infect other animals as well as humans with serious diseases. These cats no longer correspond to the definition of a pet. They have become pests, and they must be controlled. Only an educated public will request that cats be not allowed to invade neighbouring grounds and natural areas. Only an educated public can pressure elected officials-who usually sit back with an irresolute mind on controversial issues-to act upon cat delinquency. Only then will the predation on wildlife by house cats be significantly curtailed. I thank J. Barbeau and L. Roy for their helpful comments and suggestions.