Aim Despite the accelerating loss of biodiversity and the increased number of methods for conservation planning, the availability of information about the spatial distribution of biodiversity remains limited. One way to overcome this problem is to focus on surrogate resolutions that are able to represent specieslevel data and can be efficiently measured. Surrogates are only useful if the ecological patterns detected at the species-level still hold when based on coarser taxonomic identification, and if these responses are consistent across regions. We present a comprehensive analysis using data from a large-scale evaluation of ground-dwelling ants, to evaluate the use of surrogates.Location Amazon basin.Methods The sampling design covered 13 sites in eight phytophysiognomies, which in conjunction with other environmental characteristics (altitude, soil granulometry and slope) were used to validate the ecological patterns (ability of the surrogates to reproduce the ecological responses identified for species) of coarser surrogate taxa (indicator taxa, mixed-level approach, genus and subfamily). The surrogates were evaluated for their capacity to predict variation in total species richness and composition. We also estimated the monetary and time costs, in order to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of using different surrogate levels.Results Genus was the most cost-effective surrogate: it predicted 81% of site variation in species richness, was highly correlated (r 2 = 0.76) with species composition, very highly correlated (r 2 = 0.97) with ecological patterns detected at species level and saved~40% of total project costs. The mixed-level approach, indicator taxa and subfamily were not effective in representing the species-level data.Main conclusions Genus can be used as a surrogate for species, due to its high predictive value, independent of environmental heterogeneity. Genus may be useful as a surrogate for species in other megadiverse regions, especially where savings in project costs can be applied to increase sampling effort.

Some neotropical vespids are known for their association with other insects and vertebrate taxa. In the present study about the wasp diversity in the Ducke Reserve, Manaus, Brazil five active colonies and an abandoned one of Polybia rejecta, and one active colony of Synoeca virginea were found associated with ant nests of Azteca aff. chartifex (Formicidae). A single colony of Polybia rejecta was found beside nests of Cacicus cela (Passeriformes: Icteridae). These associations appear to be related both to protection of the wasps nests by the ants and the protection of the ants nests by the wasps, as well as to protection of the bird nests by the wasps. The wasps take advantage of the tolerance of the ants, nesting near their colonies to obtain protection, so escaping attack by other ant species that feed on the immature wasps. Birds in turn take advantage of protection by these wasps against potential predators. This work adds new data to the study of associations of wasp species found in Central Brazilian Amazon, with descriptions of observed behaviors and photographs of such associations. Resumo: Alguns vespídeos neotropicais são conhecidos por realizarem associações com outros táxons de insetos e vertebrados. Neste estudo sobre diversidade de vespas na Reserva Ducke, Manaus, Brasil foram localizadas cinco colônias ativas e uma abandonada de Polybia rejecta e uma colônia ativa de Synoeca virginea todas associadas aos ninhos de Azteca aff. chartifex (Formicidae). Uma única colônia de Polybia rejecta foi localizada ao lado de ninhos de Cacicus cela (Passeriformes: Icteridae). Essas associações parecem estar relacionadas tanto à proteção dada pelas formigas aos ninhos de vespas e vice-versa, quanto à proteção dada pelas vespas aos ninhos de pássaros. As vespas usam a tolerância das formigas e nidificam próximo às suas colônias para obtenção de proteção contra formigas predadoras que se alimentam das formas imaturas das vespas. Por outro lado, os pássaros podem usar a proteção das vespas contra possíveis predadores. Os comportamentos observados foram descritos e fotos destas associações foram feitas; este trabalho acrescenta novos dados ao estudo das associações realizadas por espécies de vespas encontradas na Amazônia Central brasileira.

16.9 km 2 is the main island (Lopes and Ulbrich, 2015), and the remaining area is distributed among 20 smaller islands, of which Rata Island is the largest with 0.8 km 2. The archipelago has suffered major ecological disturbances due to several human interventions. In 1737, fortifications were built, and the archipelago was transformed into a penal colony for almost 200 years. During this period, a large part of the native vegetation was devastated while exotic plants and animals were introduced to serve as food (Teixeira et al., 2003; Serafini et al., 2010). The human population in the archipelago increased significantly in 1942 through military occupation (i.e., World War II). Afterwards, significant changes were observed in the archipelago due to: • Several insecticide applications campaigns (i.e., DDT) for mosquito-control; • Wild animal introductions, such as the Teju lizard (Salvator merianae Duméril & Bibron) and the Mocó cavy (Kerodon rupestris Wied-Neuwied); • Release of birds seized in trade fairs and public markets of Recife (i.e., Saffron finch (Sicalis flaveola (Linnaeus)), House Sparrow (Passer domesticus (Linnaeus)), and the White-bellied seedeater (Sporophila leucoptera (Vieillot));

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In many ant species, newly mated queens can associate themselves with other queens to establish new colonies independent of parenthood (Hagen et al., 1988; Sasaki et al., 1996). In some cases, workers become reproductive and es-Abstract In ant taxonomy, biological studies are especially important to complete the information aiming to identify species belonging to unresolved or confused taxa. Such observations allow the inclusion of biological data with other characteristics of the determined group, something that preserved specimens in collections do not reveal, such as nesting site, foraging time, nuptial flight and especially the relationship between castes, in support of taxonomic analysis and descriptions. Here, nests of three species of the complex P. foetida were observed and collected in three Brazilian localities. Pleometrosis, secondary monogyny and cannibalism were observed for the ant P. inversa. In many ant species, newly mated queens associate with other queens to establish new colonies, independent of parenthood. In the ant genus Pachycondyla, the reproductive structure varies broadly and aggressiveness seems to be an important factor in structuring the organization and reproductive division in the colony. The occurrence of males in nests of P. inversa and P. curvinodis also allowed the description of males. The nuptial flight period was estimated to be August for P. inversa, October for P. villosa and November for P. curvinodis.