BackgroundWhile it is generally accepted that patterns of intra-specific genetic differentiation are substantially affected by glacial history, population genetic processes occurring during Pleistocene glaciations are still poorly understood. In this study, we address the question of the genetic consequences of Pleistocene glaciations for European grey wolves. Combining our data with data from published studies, we analysed phylogenetic relationships and geographic distribution of mitochondrial DNA haplotypes for 947 contemporary European wolves. We also compared the contemporary wolf sequences with published sequences of 24 ancient European wolves.ResultsWe found that haplotypes representing two haplogroups, 1 and 2, overlap geographically, but substantially differ in frequency between populations from south-western and eastern Europe. A comparison between haplotypes from Europe and other continents showed that both haplogroups are spread throughout Eurasia, while only haplogroup 1 occurs in contemporary North American wolves. All ancient wolf samples from western Europe that dated from between 44,000 and 1,200 years B.P. belonged to haplogroup 2, suggesting the long-term predominance of this haplogroup in this region. Moreover, a comparison of current and past frequencies and distributions of the two haplogroups in Europe suggested that haplogroup 2 became outnumbered by haplogroup 1 during the last several thousand years.ConclusionsParallel haplogroup replacement, with haplogroup 2 being totally replaced by haplogroup 1, has been reported for North American grey wolves. Taking into account the similarity of diets reported for the late Pleistocene wolves from Europe and North America, the correspondence between these haplogroup frequency changes may suggest that they were associated with ecological changes occurring after the Last Glacial Maximum.

The diet of foxes, Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758) was estimated on the basis of analysis of approximately 1000 portions of faeces collected successively during three years. Estimation of the degree of different food constituent enabled assessment of the biomass of food consumed by these predators. Small rodents dominate in the diet of foxes (65.1%). Hares are less important (26.0°/o), while roe deer and birds are supplementary constituents. Among small rodents prevails Microtus arvalis (93.1°/o). It was shown that the availability of voles for foxes is a factor deciding on the diet of foxes. Estimates of year consumption of voles and hares by foxes are presented and the effect of these predators on the population of small rodents is discussed. * Praca została wykonana w ramach problemu węzłowego: Ekologiczne efekty intensywnej uprawy roli.Ul

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An analysis was m ade of th e diet, n u m b ers an d p en e tratio n of study a re a by a group of p red ato rs ty p ical of th e agrocenoses of the W ielkopolska region of Poland. T h ere w as d istinguished a gro u p of p re d ato rs highly specialized in c a p tu re of the com m on vole. This group includes species for w hich th e vole form s th e m ost im p o rta n t com ponent of th e ir food, w hich react very m ark ed ly in respect of th eir num bers to variations in th e density of th is ro d en t an d w hich obtain th eir food chiefly in fields and meadows. E stim ates are given of th e e x te n t of p ressu re ex erted by p red ato rs on field an d fo rest ro d en ts, an d m eans of counteracting m ass irru p tio n of field ro d en ts discussed.[Inst. Ecol., Dept. Agroecol,, Polish Acad. Sci., 64-003 T urew , Poland].