Experimental studies that are relevant to human pregnancy rely on the selection of appropriate animal models as an important element in experimental design. Consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of any animal model of human disease is fundamental to effective and meaningful translation of preclinical research. Studies in sheep have made significant contributions to our understanding of the normal and abnormal development of the fetus. As a model of human pregnancy, studies in sheep have enabled scientists and clinicians to answer questions about the etiology and treatment of poor maternal, placental, and fetal health and to provide an evidence base for translation of interventions to the clinic. The aim of this review is to highlight the advances in perinatal human medicine that have been achieved following translation of research using the pregnant sheep and fetus.

Over 30 years ago Professor David Barker first proposed the theory that events in early life could explain an individual's risk of non-communicable disease in later life: the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) hypothesis. During the 1990s the validity of the DOHaD hypothesis was extensively tested in a number of human populations and the mechanisms underpinning it characterised in a range of experimental animal models. Over the past decade, researchers have sought to use this mechanistic understanding of DOHaD to develop therapeutic interventions during pregnancy and early life to improve adult health. A variety of animal models have been used to develop and evaluate interventions, each with strengths and limitations. It is becoming apparent that effective translational research requires that the animal paradigm selected mirrors the tempo of human fetal growth and development as closely as possible so that the effect of a perinatal insult and/or therapeutic intervention can be fully assessed. The guinea pig is one such animal model that over the past two decades has demonstrated itself to be a very useful platform for these important reproductive studies. This review highlights similarities in the in utero development between humans and guinea pigs, the strengths and limitations of the guinea pig as an experimental model of DOHaD and the guinea pig's potential to enhance clinical therapeutic innovation to improve human health.

Human fetal Doppler ultrasound and invasive blood gas measurements obtained by cordocentesis or at the time of delivery reveal similarities with sheep (an extensively used model for human fetal cardiovascular physiology). r Oxygen saturation (SO 2) measurements in human fetuses have been limited to the umbilical and scalp vessels, providing little information about normal regional SO 2 differences in the fetus. r Blood T2 MRI relaxometry presents a non-invasive measure of SO 2 in the major fetal vessels. r This study presents the first in vivo validation of fetal vessel T2 oximetry against the in vitro T2-SO 2 relationship using catheterized sheep fetuses and compares the normal SO 2 in the major vessels between the human and sheep fetal circulations. r Human fetal vessel SO 2 by T2 MRI confirms many similarities with the sheep fetal circulation and is able to demonstrate regional differences in SO 2 ; in particular the significantly higher SO 2 in the left versus right heart.

BackgroundTo date it has not been possible to obtain a comprehensive 3D assessment of fetal hemodynamics because of the technical challenges inherent in imaging small cardiac structures, movement of the fetus during data acquisition, and the difficulty of fusing data from multiple cardiac cycles when a cardiac gating signal is absent. Here we propose the combination of volumetric velocity-sensitive cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging (“4D flow” CMR) and a specialized animal preparation (catheters to monitor fetal heart rate, anesthesia to immobilize mother and fetus) to examine fetal sheep cardiac hemodynamics in utero.MethodsTen pregnant Merino sheep underwent surgery to implant arterial catheters in the target fetuses. Anesthetized ewes underwent 4D flow CMR with acquisition at 3 T for fetal whole-heart coverage with 1.2–1.5 mm spatial resolution and 45–62 ms temporal resolution. Flow was measured in the heart and major vessels, and particle traces were used to visualize circulatory patterns in fetal cardiovascular shunts. Conservation of mass was used to test internal 4D flow consistency, and comparison to standard 2D phase contrast (PC) CMR was performed for validation.ResultsStreaming of blood from the ductus venosus through the foramen ovale was visualized. Flow waveforms in the major thoracic vessels and shunts displayed normal arterial and venous patterns. Combined ventricular output (CVO) was 546 mL/min per kg, and the distribution of flows (%CVO) were comparable to values obtained using other methods. Internal 4D flow consistency across 23 measurement locations was established with differences of 14.2 ± 12.1%. Compared with 2D PC CMR, 4D flow showed a strong correlation (R2 = 0.85) but underestimated flow (bias = − 21.88 mL/min per kg, p < 0.05).ConclusionsThe combination of fetal surgical preparation and 4D flow CMR enables characterization and quantification of complex flow patterns in utero. Visualized streaming of blood through normal physiological shunts confirms the complex mechanism of substrate delivery to the fetal heart and brain. Besides offering insight into normal physiology, this technology has the potential to qualitatively characterize complex flow patterns in congenital heart disease phenotypes in a large animal model, which can support the development of new interventions to improve outcomes in this population.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12968-018-0512-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Phase-contrast cine MRI (PC-MRI) is the gold-standard non-invasive technique for measuring vessel blood flow and has previously been applied in the human fetal circulation. We aimed to assess the feasibility of using PC-MRI to define the distribution of the fetal circulation in sheep. Fetuses were catheterized at 119-120 days gestation (term, 150 days) and underwent MRI at 123 days gestation under isoflurane anesthesia, ventilated at a FiO of 1.0. PC-MRI was performed using a fetal arterial blood pressure catheter signal for cardiac triggering. Blood flows were measured in the major fetal vessels, including the main pulmonary artery, ascending and descending aorta, superior vena cava, ductus arteriosus, left and right pulmonary arteries, umbilical vein, ductus venosus, and common carotid artery; and were indexed to estimated fetal weight. The combined ventricular output, pulmonary blood flow and flow across the foramen ovale were calculated from vessel flows. Intra-observer, inter-observer agreement and reproducibility were assessed. Blood flow measurements were successfully obtained in 61 out of 74 vessels (82.4%) interrogated in 9 fetuses. There was good intra-observer (R=0.998, P<0.0001; ICC=0.997) and inter-observer agreement (R=0.996, P<0.0001; ICC=0.996). Repeated MRI measurements showed good reproducibility (R=0.989, P=0.0002; ICC=0.990). We conclude that PC-MRI using fetal catheters for gating triggers is feasible in the major vessels of late gestation fetal sheep. This approach may provide a useful new tool for assessing the circulatory characteristics of fetal sheep models of human disease, including fetal growth restriction and congenital heart disease.