This paper builds on the context and recent progress on the control, reproducibility, and limitations of using graphene and graphene-related materials (GRMs) in biomedical applications. The review describes the human hazard assessment of GRMs in in vitro and in vivo studies, highlights the composition–structure–activity relationships that cause toxicity for these substances, and identifies the key parameters that determine the activation of their biological effects. GRMs are designed to offer the advantage of facilitating unique biomedical applications that impact different techniques in medicine, especially in neuroscience. Due to the increasing utilization of GRMs, there is a need to comprehensively assess the potential impact of these materials on human health. Various outcomes associated with GRMs, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, beneficial effects on cell proliferation, differentiation rates, apoptosis, necrosis, autophagy, oxidative stress, physical destruction, DNA damage, and inflammatory responses, have led to an increasing interest in these regenerative nanostructured materials. Considering the existence of graphene-related nanomaterials with different physicochemical properties, the materials are expected to exhibit unique modes of interactions with biomolecules, cells, and tissues depending on their size, chemical composition, and hydrophil-to-hydrophobe ratio. Understanding such interactions is crucial from two perspectives, namely, from the perspectives of their toxicity and biological uses. The main aim of this study is to assess and tune the diverse properties that must be considered when planning biomedical applications. These properties include flexibility, transparency, surface chemistry (hydrophil–hydrophobe ratio), thermoelectrical conductibility, loading and release capacity, and biocompatibility.

Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC) is a simple, safe, low-cost and rapid procedure for diagnostic purpose which makes surgical intervention and exploratory laparotomy unnecessary. The deep seated organs like gall bladder, spleen, pancreas, retroperitoneum and ovary are sampled safely and routinely aspirated using the fine needle under radiological guidance. To assess the utility of FNAC in the diagnosis of intraabdominal lesions, to study the cytomorphological features and to determine the reliability of ultrasonography guided FNAC in distinguishing neoplastic from non-neoplastic intraabdominal mass lesions. The study included 48 intra-abdominal lesions which were detected clinically or radiologically. USG guided FNA was done whenever indicated. The smears were stained with Haematoxylin and eosin (H and E), May Grunwald Giemsa (MGG) and Papanicolaou’s stains. Among 48 cases, 45 cases were usg-guided, 2 cases were blind and one case was intraoperative. The diagnostic yield of usg-guided FNAC was 84.4%.Majority of aspirations were done in the age group of 51-60 years with male:female ratio of 1:1.53. Most common organ subjected to FNA was Liver followed by ovary. Majority of the lesions were found to be malignant. The most common lesion encountered in the whole study was metastastatic carcinoma. Fine needle aspiration cytology is a repeatable and rapid diagnostic procedure that has application in the evaluation of deep seated abdominal mass lesions. With the help of radiological guidance, diagnostic accuracy of FNAC of deep seated lesions dramatically increases.

Plasmablastic lymphoma (PBL) is a rare aggressive subtype of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma with large neoplastic cells. It is usually associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection but also identified in patients with solid organ transplantation and in immunocompetent patients. It frequently presents as a mass in oral cavity, but has also been described in other extra-oral sites like gastrointestinal track, skin, genitourinary track, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, etc. It is characterized by plasmablastic features and an immunoprofile close to plasma cells, Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) positivity and MYC gene dysregulation. We report a case of a 40 year old HIV positive male who presented with intestinal obstruction having mass in transverse colon. Histopathological examination of the excised mass revealed submucosa and muscularis propria infiltrated by monotonous population of medium to large sized lymphoid cells with plasmacytic differentiation. The tumour cells were immunoreactive for EMA, CD138 and Vimentin and immunonegative for LCA, CK, S-100, Chromogranin, CD20, CD30, CD3. Thus the final diagnosis of Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma – Consistent with Plasmablastic Lymphoma was made. PBL should be carefully differentiated from Plasmablastic Plasma cell myeloma, other CD20 negative B-cell neoplasma i.e. primary effusion lymphoma, anaplastic lymphoma Kinase (ALK)-positive large B-cell lymphoma, large B-cell lymphoma arising in human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8)-associated multicentric Castleman disease.