ReuseThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs (CC BY-NC-ND) licence. This licence only allows you to download this work and share it with others as long as you credit the authors, but you can't change the article in any way or use it commercially. More information and the full terms of the licence here: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ TakedownIf you consider content in White Rose Research Online to be in breach of UK law, please notify us by emailing eprints@whiterose.ac.uk including the URL of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. ABSTRACTNew powertrain technologies, such as Hybrid Electric Vehicles, have a price premium which can often be offset by lower running costs. Total Cost of Ownership combines these purchase and operating expenses to identify the most economical choice of vehicle. This is a valuable assessment for private and fleet purchasers alike. Studies to date have not compared Total Cost of Ownership across more than two vehicle markets or analysed historic costs. To address this gap, this research provides a more extensive Total Cost of Ownership assessment of conventional, Hybrid, Plug-in Hybrid and Battery Electric Vehicles in three industrialized countriesthe UK, USA (using California and Texas as case studies) and Japan -for the time period 1997 to 2015. Finally, the link between Hybrid Electric Vehicle Total Cost of Ownership and market share is analysed with a panel regression model. In all regions the incremental Total Cost of Ownership of hybrid and electric vehicles compared to conventional vehicles has reduced from the year of introduction and 2015. Year on year Hybrid Electric Vehicles Total Cost of Ownership was found to vary least in the UK due to the absence of subsidies. Market share was found to be strongly linked to Hybrid Electric Vehicle Total Cost of Ownership through a panel regression analysis. Financial subsidies have enabled Battery ElectricVehicles to reach cost parity in the UK, California and Texas, but this is not the case for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles which haven't received as much financial backing. This research has implications for fleet purchasers and private owners who are considering switching to a low-emission vehicle. The findings are also of interest to policymakers that are keen to develop effective measures to stimulate decarbonisation of the fleet and improve air quality.
UK government implemented national lockdown in response to COVID-19 on the 23–26 March 2020. As elsewhere in Europe and Internationally, associated restrictions initially limited individual mobility and workplace activity to essential services and travel, and significant air quality benefits were widely anticipated. Here, break-point/segment methods are applied to air pollutant time-series from the first half of 2020 to provide an independent estimate of the timings of discrete changes in NO, NO 2 , NO x , O 3 , PM 10 and PM 2.5 time-series from Automatic Urban Rural Network (AURN) monitoring stations across the UK. NO, NO 2 and NO x all exhibit abrupt decreases at the time the UK locked down of (on average) 7.6 to 17 μg·m −3 (or 32 to 50%) at Urban Traffic stations and 4 to 5.7 μg·m −3 (or 26 to 46%) at Urban Background stations. However, after the initial abrupt reduction, gradual increases were then observed through lockdown. This suggests that the return of vehicles to the road during early lockdown has already offset much of the air quality improvement seen when locking down (provisional estimate 50 to 70% by 01 July). While locking down O 3 increased (7 to 7.4 μg·m −3 or 14 to 17% at Urban stations) broadly in line with NO 2 reductions, but later changes suggest significant non-lockdown contributions to O 3 during the months that followed. Increases of similar magnitudes were observed for both PM 10 (5.9 to 6.3 μg·m −3 ) and PM 2.5 (3.9 to 5.0 μg·m −3 ) at both Rural and Urban stations alike, but the distribution of changes suggests the lockdown was not an obvious direct source of changes in levels of either of these species during this period, and that more complex contributions, e.g. from resuspension and secondary aerosol, may be more likely major drivers for these changes.
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