In the course of the twentieth century, social scientists and policy analysts have produced a large volume of literature on whether policies boost fertility. This paper describes the results of a systematic review of the literature on the effects of policy on fertility since 1970 in Europe, the United States, Canada, and Australia. Empirical studies were selected through extensive systematic searches, including studies using an experimental or quasi‐experimental design. Thirty‐five studies were included, covering reforms of parental leave, childcare, health services, and universal child transfers. In line with previous reviews, we find that childcare expansions increase completed fertility, while increased cash transfers have temporary effects. New evidence on parental leave expansions, particularly from Central Europe, suggests larger effects than previously established. High‐earning couples benefit more from parental leave expansions, while expanding childcare programs can reduce social inequalities on other domains. Subsidizing assisted reproductive treatments shows some promise of increasing birth rates for women over the age of 35. Countries that to date have limited support for families can build on solid evidence if they choose to expand these programs.

In the current paper, we investigate within-couple inequality in earnings using Norwegian register data on married and cohabiting couples. We are particularly interested in assessing whether the negative relation between children and women's relative earnings changed during the study period 2005 to 2014. In this period, work-family policy measures meant to facilitate mothers' employment and promoting fathers' family involvement were strengthened, and there was a sharp increase in women's level of education. Controlling for demographic and socioeconomic variables, results showed that women on average still earn less than their male partners and that the presence of small children in the household was negatively related to women's earnings. However, results from interaction models showed that the negative association between having young children and women's relative earnings was reduced during the study period. Additional analyses confirmed that this latter finding was mainly due to an income reduction among new fathers.

SammendragAnalyser av registerdata om pensjonsgivende inntekt viser at omtrent 48 prosent av gifte eller samboende par hadde en likestilt forsørgerpraksis i 2013, ved at partene hadde omtrent like store inntekter. Mannen hadde klart høyest inntekt i 46 prosent av parene, mens kvinnen hadde høyest inntekt i 6 prosent av parene. En likestilt forsørgerpraksis er vanligst når kvinnen har lang utdanning og det ikke er små barn eller mange barn i husholdningen, når kvinnens utdanning er rettet mot et mannsdominert yrke, når mannens utdanning er rettet mot et kvinnedominert yrke i offentlig sektor, og når kvinnen har lengre utdanning enn mannen. Nøkkelord: to-inntektspar, forsørgermodeller, inntektsulikhet, kjønnsforskjellerAbstract: Breadwinner practices -gender equality or specialization? Analysis of register data on pensionable income reveals that in 48 percent of married or cohabiting couples the partners' income contributions were relatively equal in 2013. In 46 percent, the male partner's income contribution significantly surpassed that of the female, while the reverse pertained in only 6 percent. A gender-equal breadwinner practice is most common when the female partner is highly educated, 379 Universitetsforlaget | www.idunn.no/spa This article is downloaded from www.idunn.no.

Our systematic literature review "Effects of policy on fertility: A systematic review of (quasi-)experiments" synthesizes studies that take an experimental or quasi-experimental approach in studying the effect of policy on fertility. This protocol provides details on the process of searching and sorting beyond those provided in the pre-registration and final article.

Geographical variations in fertility and the diffusion of fertility across space and social networks are central topics in demographic research. Less is known, however, about the role of neighborhoods and neighbors with regard to geographical variations in fertility. This paper investigates spatial variations in family size by analyzing third births in a neighborhood context. Using unique geo-data on neighbors and neighborhoods, this paper introduces a new geographical dimension of fertility variation and contributes to our understanding of geographical variations in fertility. Flexible, ego-centered neighborhoods are constructed using longitudinal geo-data taken from administrative registers (2000-2014). Data on inhabitants’ residential address, their housing, family situation and fixed effects for statistical tracts are used to account for sorting into housing and urban versus rural districts. The analysis shows that the likelihood of two-child couples having another child increases with the share of families in the neighborhood that have three or more children. This relationship remains unchanged, even after controlling for the sociodemographic characteristics of couples, the educational level attained by neighboring women as well as time-constant characteristics of neighborhoods. Results are consistent across various neighborhood definitions ranging from the 12 to the 500 nearest neighbors. However, the association between neighbors’ fertility becomes stronger as the number of neighbors increases, suggesting that selective residential sorting is an important driver. Consequently, this study indicates that transitions to third birth may be linked to social interaction effects among neighbors, in addition to well-known processes of selective residential sorting.