The relationship between companion animal ownership and wellbeing has received an increasing amount of scientific attention over the last few decades. Although the general assumption is that individuals benefit from the presence of companion animals (termed the "pet-effect"), recent evidence suggests that the nature of this association is diverse and complex and that many of the studies performed so far are subject to methodological constraints. This study therefore aimed to investigate the pet-effect in the natural setting of pet-owners' daily life. Using the Experience Sampling Method (a signal contingent ecological assessment technique), 55 dog or cat owners reported for five consecutive days, at ten random time-points each day, in the moment whether a pet was present and to what extent they interacted with it. In addition, at each measurement moment they reported on their current positive and negative affect, using 11 mood-related adjectives derived from the Positive And Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). Multilevel regression analyses showed that negative affect was relatively lower at moments when the companion animal was present (vs. absent) (B = -0.09, p = 0.02, 95%CI = -0.16; -0.02). In addition, the level of interaction with a companion animal was positively associated with positive affect (B = 0.04, p < 0.001, 95%CI = 0.01; 0.07). These results are in line with the pet-effect hypothesis in suggesting that the presence of and interaction with companion animals is associated with aspects of emotional wellbeing. More specifically, the presence of a companion animal may buffer against negative feelings, while interacting with a companion animal may generate positive feelings. This differential effect on positive versus negative affect also shows that the pet-effect is not an unequivocal effect. Different aspects of the human-animal relationship may influence different aspects of wellbeing.

Companion animals have been identified as a unique source of social support and as contributors to mental wellbeing. This study uses the Experience Sampling Method to test whether this effect is due to stress-buffering. A total of 159 dog and cat owners responded to a series of randomly scheduled questionnaires on their smartphones. At each measurement moment, they reported in whether a pet is present at that moment and to what extent they have interacted with the pet. They also reported on stressful activities and events and on their current positive (PA) and negative (NA) affect. Multilevel regression analyses showed that when a companion animal was present (vs. absent) the negative association between stress and PA is less pronounced (event stress: B = 0.13, p = 0.002, 95% CI = 0.05; 0.21 activity stress: B = 0.08, p < 0.001, 95% CI = 0.04; 0.12). No additional main effect was revealed when tested in a subsample of records that reported low or no stress. Main effects were found for the presence of a companion animal on negative affect (B = 0.08, p < 0.001; 95% CI = 0.12; 0.05) and for interacting with a companion animal on positive affect (B = 0.06, p < 0.001; 95% CI = 0.04; 0.08). This shows that the presence of a companion animal buffers against the negative consequences of stress on positive affect, indicating stress-buffering as a mechanism behind the pet-effect. It is, however, not the only mechanism and more research is required to further elucidate how companion animals contribute to human wellbeing.

Anthrozoology continues to advance forward in research and in professionalization of animal assisted interventions. What the discipline is still lacking, however, is a unified theoretical framework “explaining how and why relationships between humans and animals are potentially therapeutic” ( Kruger & Serpell, 2010 ). We propose such a framework, inspired by enactivism ( Varela, Thompson, & Rosch, 1992 ), to integrate the most prominent psychological constructs and biological facts that are currently known in anthrozoological research. Mutual, fully embodied attunement of behavior between living systems is the central concept we put forward in this paper. We address how, in the context of humans and many other animals, meaning production, communication, reflexivity, as well as the shaping of affectivity and behavioral routines all follow from this central principle. The interconnection of key anthrozoological issues and theories—including attachment theory, social support theory, and the biophilia hypothesis— are discussed in direct relation to the mutual, embodied attunement of behavior between humans and animals. We also sketch how this theoretical model may open new domains for doing research.

Introductory Psychology courses in Higher Education lack application of knowledge in solving work‐based problems. We develop and study mini‐games that support a more active and experiential way of learning to increase professional awareness. This paper describes the instructional design and the factors under study: learner control and authenticity. We compared professional awareness and perceived authenticity for the old (without game, n = 130) and new course (with game, n = 197) by administering pre‐ and post‐questionnaires. Participants were allocated to game variants, differing in freedom of assignment order (less or more learner control) and number of sources available (less or more authentic). We computer logged their game actions, and asked them additional questions about gameplay that concerned aspects like motivation, flow, performance, learnability and usability. Both courses improved professional awareness (knowledge gains of 4% for the old and 12% for the new course), but only in the new course with mini‐games this was significant. Students evaluated gameplay and their content as “more than sufficient” to “good.” A free order of assignments was found to produce more effective (in‐game) performance, and the provision of more sources was found to improve learnability, authentic learning and appreciations of gameplay.

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