Design of proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller with proportional, integral, and derivative gains given by ,  and  respectively, for time-delay systems is presented in this study. The centroid of the convex stability region (CCSR) method in the -  plane for fixed  is used. PID controller design for time-delay systems in the -  plane for a fixed  and -  plane for a fixed  have been extensively researched. Despite the amenability of CCSR method to design of PID controller in the -  plane for fixed , its application in this regard has not been given serious attention. The stability region in -  plane for fixed  was determined and the required controller gains in the region were determined using the CCSR method. Using the determined controller gains, the system closed loop unit step response for all the considered regions was plotted on same axes. Based on the obtained results, different combinations of controller gains can be implemented depending on the system time domain performance measures (TDPMs) requirements. However, selection of an appropriate controller gains combinations, requires compromise among any of the conflicting TDPMs.

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The goal of universal telecommunication access is to make telecommunication infrastructure available to everyone irrespective of their geographical location, income level, age, gender or other discriminatory parameters. Despite substantial efforts to close the digital divide, developing countries still encounter daunting challenges in making access truly universal. In this article, the authors report on an exploratory field survey of 15 rural communities in Nigeria's Kwara State to document their perception of the effects of rural telecoms access on their livelihoods. Results revealed mostly positive effects in respect of economic growth, poverty alleviation, health education, primary healthcare delivery, and reporting of epidemic outbreaks such as the recent Ebola crisis. However, little impact on quality of government service was recorded, as awareness of participation in governance and socio-political issues was found to be very low. The article discusses some areas in which universal telecommunications access can be expected, going forward, to address the needs of communities in rural and remote communities.

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