Activated microglia are thought to undergo apoptosis as a self-regulatory mechanism. To better understand molecular mechanisms of the microglial apoptosis, apoptosis-resistant variants of microglial cells were selected and characterized. The expression of lipocalin 2 (lcn2) was significantly down-regulated in the microglial cells that were resistant to NO-induced apoptosis. lcn2 expression was increased by inflammatory stimuli in microglia. The stable expression of lcn2 as well as the addition of rLCN2 protein augmented the sensitivity of microglia to the NO-induced apoptosis, while knockdown of lcn2 expression using short hairpin RNA attenuated the cell death. Microglial cells with increased lcn2 expression were more sensitive to other cytotoxic agents as well. Thus, inflammatory activation of microglia may lead to up-regulation of lcn2 expression, which sensitizes microglia to the self-regulatory apoptosis. Additionally, the stable expression of lcn2 in BV-2 microglia cells induced a morphological change of the cells into the round shape with a loss of processes. Treatment of primary microglia cultures with the rLCN2 protein also induced the deramification of microglia. The deramification of microglia was closely related with the apoptosis-prone phenotype, because other deramification-inducing agents such as cAMP-elevating agent forskolin, ATP, and calcium ionophore also rendered microglia more sensitive to cell death. Taken together, our results suggest that activated microglia may secrete LCN2 protein, which act in an autocrine manner to sensitize microglia to the self-regulatory apoptosis and to endow microglia with an amoeboid form, a canonical morphology of activated microglia in vivo.

The present study aimed to identify the antecedents of burnout and its consequences for psychotherapists. The meta-analysis showed that, among antecedents, the over-involvement variable had the most significant positive correlation with emotional exhaustion, while the control variable had the most significant negative correlations with depersonalization and personal accomplishment. On the other hand, among consequences, the job satisfaction variable had the most significant positive correlations with emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. Based on these results, we found resources that can assist with developing burnout prevention interventions for psychotherapists.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the factorial validity of the MBI-SS in Korean students. Specifically, we investigated whether the original three-factor structure of the MBI-SS was appropriate for use with Korean students. In addition, by running multi-group structural equation model analyses with factorial invariance tests simultaneously for both genders (i.e., males and females) and academic settings (i.e., middle school and high school), we tested whether the factor loading and correlations between factors can be similarly interpreted across the different groups. Results indicated that the MBI-SS is a valid instrument to measure academic burnout of Korean students. Furthermore, results presented the possibility that the MBI-SS could be used regardless of cultural background. Implications for future research and practice and limitations are discussed.

The purpose of this study is to identify specifi c burnout patterns among Korean students. Using a cluster analysis procedure and the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Survey, four clusters were identifi ed: (1) distressed group;(2) laissez-faire group; (3) persevering group; and (4) well-functioning group. In addition, the results of categorical regression analysis indicated that self-esteem and Grade Point Average (GPA) were good discriminators between the four clusters. Specifi cally, students who self-identifi ed as not experiencing burnout (well-functioning group) were found to have the highest scores on GPA and positive self-esteem. Practical implications for educators are discussed.