1There is mounting evidence of pollinator decline all over the world and consequences in many 2 agricultural areas could be significant. We assessed these consequences by measuring 1) the 3 contribution of insect pollination to the world agricultural output economic value, and 2) the 4 vulnerability of world agriculture in the face of pollinator decline. We used a bioeconomic 5 approach, which integrated the production dependence ratio on pollinators, for the 100 crops 6 used directly for human food worldwide as listed by FAO. The total economic value of 7 pollination worldwide amounted to €153 billion, which represented 9.5% of the value of the 8 world agricultural production used for human food in 2005. In terms of welfare, the consumer 9 surplus loss was estimated between €190 and €310 billion based upon average price 10 elasticities of -1.5 to -0.8, respectively. Vegetables and fruits were the leading crop 11 categories in value of insect pollination with about €50 billion each, followed by edible oil 12 crops, stimulants, nuts and spices. The production value of a ton of the crop categories that do 13 not depend on insect pollination averaged €151 while that of those that are pollinator-14 dependent averaged €761. The vulnerability ratio was calculated for each crop category at the 15 regional and world scales as the ratio between the economic value of pollination and the 16 current total crop value. This ratio varied considerably among crop categories and there was a 17 positive correlation between the rate of vulnerability to pollinators decline of a crop category 18 and its value per production unit. Looking at the capacity to nourish the world population 19 after pollinator loss, the production of 3 crop categories -namely fruits, vegetables, and 20 stimulants-will clearly be below the current consumption level at the world scale and even 21 more so for certain regions like Europe. Yet, although our valuation clearly demonstrates the 22 economic importance of insect pollinators, it cannot be considered as a scenario since it does 23 not take into account the strategic responses of the markets. 24

Insects have presented human society with some of its greatest development challenges by spreading diseases, consuming crops and damaging infrastructure. Despite the massive human and financial toll of invasive insects, cost estimates of their impacts remain sporadic, spatially incomplete and of questionable quality. Here we compile a comprehensive database of economic costs of invasive insects. Taking all reported goods and service estimates, invasive insects cost a minimum of US$70.0 billion per year globally, while associated health costs exceed US$6.9 billion per year. Total costs rise as the number of estimate increases, although many of the worst costs have already been estimated (especially those related to human health). A lack of dedicated studies, especially for reproducible goods and service estimates, implies gross underestimation of global costs. Global warming as a consequence of climate change, rising human population densities and intensifying international trade will allow these costly insects to spread into new areas, but substantial savings could be achieved by increasing surveillance, containment and public awareness.

Biological invasions are responsible, in addition to significant biodiversity declines, for enormous economic losses to society as well as monetary expenditures for their management 1,2 . The InvaCost database has allowed for the first time a reliable, comprehensive, standardized, and easily updatable synthesis of the monetary impacts of invasions worldwide 3 . Here, we found that total reported costs of invasions reached a minimum of $1.288 trillion (2017 US dollars) over the last few decades , with an annual average cost of $26.8 billion. Moreover, we estimate that the annual average cost could reach $162.7 billion in 2017. These costs remain massively underestimated and do not show any sign of slowing down with a consistent three-fold increase per decade. Our synthesis reveals that documented costs are both widely distributed and with strong gaps at regional and taxonomic scales, with damage costs being an order of magnitude higher than management expenditures. Research approaches for documenting costs of biological invasions need to be further improved. Nonetheless, our findings are a compelling call for the implementation of consistent management actions and international policy agreements aiming to reduce invasive alien species burden.