In this study, eight common and two unusual synthetic phenolic antioxidants (SPAs), as well as four transformation products (TPs), were comprehensively analyzed in 80 human breast milk samples collected from lactating women in South China. All 10 SPAs and 4 TPs were detected in the breast milk samples. 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol (DBP) was detected at high concentrations (mean of 16.9 ng/mL), followed by 2,6-di-tert-butyl-hydroxytoluene (BHT) (mean of 1.52 ng/mL). DBP and BHT collectively contributed to 91.9% of the mean ∑SPAs (sum concentrations of all 10 detected SPAs). The lipid content was identified as an important endogenous factor that influenced the levels of DBP and BHT in breast milk. The concentrations of BHT, DBP, and ∑TPs (sum concentrations of all four detected TPs) in the breast milk were significantly associated with maternal education level, eating habits, and personal care product use (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the concentrations of BHT and its TPs in the breast milk were also found to be significantly associated with newborn birth outcomes, including prematurity and birth length (p < 0.05). This is the first study to report significant associations of the concentrations of some SPAs in breast milk with some important demographic characteristics and lifestyle factors.

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The production and usage of non-polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) have substantially increased after the ban of several PBDEs. This has resulted in widespread environmental occurrence of non-PBDE HFRs, further amplified by emissions from primitive recycling of obsolete electronics (e-waste). The present study conducted chamber experiments to characterize 15 HFRs (∑15HFR) from thermal treatment and open burning of typical e-waste. Emission factors of ∑15HFR from thermal treatment were 2.6 × 104–3.9 × 105 ng g–1, slightly higher than those from open burning (8.8 × 103–1.0 × 105 ng g–1). Greater output over input mass ratios of ∑15HFR were obtained in thermal treatment than in open burning. Particulate and gaseous HFRs dominated the emissions in thermal treatment and open burning, respectively, largely because of the different temperatures used in the two processes. Particulate HFRs were primarily affiliated with fine particles (D p < 1.8 μm) peaking at 0.56–1.0 or 0.32–0.56 μm in both thermal treatment and open burning. Occupational exposure to most FRs was relatively low, but several PBDEs may pose potential health risk to workers in e-waste home-workshops. Potentially accruing emissions and health risks of non-PBDE HFRs from primitive recycling of e-waste remain a great concern.

Fluorescent brighteners (FBs) are a group of mass-produced dyestuff chemicals that have been extensively used for decades. However, knowledge of their occurrence in municipal wastewater treatment plants on a large geographical scale remains unknown. Herein, we implemented the first nationwide survey for wastewater-derived FBs in sludge across major cities in China. All 25 target FBs were detected in the nationwide sludge. Ionic FBs exhibited much higher concentrations than nonionic FBs. The total sludge concentrations of 25 FBs (∑25FBs) ranged from 7300 to 1,520,000 ng/g, with a median of 35,300 ng/g. A clear geographical distribution of significantly higher concentrations of FBs was found in East and Central China than in West China (p < 0.05). The sludge concentrations of ∑25FBs were correlated well with the gross domestic product (GDP) and population size at the provincial level in China (p < 0.05), demonstrating the significance of anthropogenic impacts on FB levels in urban sludge. The nationwide annual emission of total FBs into sludge in China is estimated to be 835 tons/year, of which 134 tons/year is directly released into sludge-applied soils. Our work highlights another new class of chemicals that significantly contribute to the chemical mixtures in urban sludge and thus require immediate attention.