There has been increasing evidence pointing to the mitochondrial respiratory chain (MRC) as a novel and important target for the actions of 17β-estradiol(E2) and estrogen receptors (ER) in a number of cell types and tissues that have high demands for mitochondrial energy metabolism. This novel E2-mediated mitochondrial pathway involves the cooperation of both nuclear and mitochondrial ERα and ERβ and their co-activators on the coordinate regulation of both nuclear DNA- and mitochondrial DNA-encoded genes for MRC proteins. In this paper, we have: 1) comprehensively reviewed studies that reveal a novel role of estrogens and ERs in the regulation of MRC biogenesis; 2) discussed their physiological, pathological and pharmacological implications in the control of cell proliferation and apoptosis in relation to estrogen-mediated carcinogenesis, anticancer drug resistance in human breast cancer cells, neuro-protection for Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease in brain, cardiovascular protection in human heart and their beneficial effects in lens physiology related to cataract in the eye; and 3) pointed out new research directions to address the key questions in this important and newly emerging area. We also suggest a novel conceptual approach that will contribute to innovative regimines for the prevention or treatment of a wide variety of medical complications based on E2/ER-mediated MRC biogenesis pathway.

It is well known that the biological and carcinogenic effects of 17beta-estradiol (E2) are mediated via nuclear estrogen receptors (ERs) by regulating nuclear gene expression. Several rapid, non-nuclear genomic effects of E2 are mediated via plasma membrane-bound ERs. In addition, there is accumulating evidence suggesting that mitochondria are also important targets for the action of estrogens and ERs. This review summarized the studies on the effects of estrogens via ERs on mitochondrial structure and function. The potential physiological and pathophysiological implications of deficiency and/or overabundance of these E2/ER-mediated mitochondrial effects in stimulation of cell proliferation, inhibition of apoptosis, E2-mediated cardiovascular and neuroprotective effects in target cells are also discussed.

The prevalence of obesity among children, adolescents and adults has been dramatically increasing worldwide during the last several decades. The obesity epidemic has been recognized as one of the major global health problems, because its health hazard is linked to a number of common diseases including breast and prostate cancers. Obesity is caused by combination of genetic and environmental factors. While genetic contribution to obesity has been known to be significant, the genetic factors remain relatively unchanged. Recent studies have highlighted the involvement of environmental “obesogens”, i.e. the xenobiotic chemicals that can disrupt the normal development and homeostatic control over adipogenesis and energy balance. Several lines of evidence suggest that increasing exposure to chemicals with endocrine-disrupting activities (endocrine disrupting chemicals, EDCs) contributes to the increased obesity. The cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying obesogen-associated obesity are just now being appreciated. In this paper, we comprehensively reviewed current knowledge about the role of estrogen receptors alpha and beta (ERα and ERβ) in regulation of energy metabolism pathways, including glucose transport, glycolysis, tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, mitochondrial respiratory chain (MRC adenosine nucleotide translocator (ANT) and fatty acid β-oxidation and synthesis, by estrogens and then examined the disturbance of E2/ER-mediated energy metabolism pathways by environmental obesogens; and finally, we discussed the potential implications of disturbance of energy metabolism pathways by obesogens in obesity and pointed out several key aspects of this area that need to be further explored. A better understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying obesogen-associated obesity will lead to new approaches for slow down and/or prevention of the increased trend of obesity associated with exposure to obesogens.

Prolonged exposure to 17beta-estradiol (E2) is a key etiological factor for human breast cancer. The biological effects and carcinogenic effects of E2 are mediated via estrogen receptors (ERs), ERalpha and ERbeta. Anti-estrogens, e.g. tamoxifen, and aromatase inhibitors have been used to treat ER-positive breast cancer. While anti-estrogen therapy is initially successful, a major problem is that most tumors develop resistance and the disease ultimately progresses, pointing to the need of developing alternative drugs targeting to other critical targets in breast cancer cells. We have identified that Na+, K+-ATPase, a plasma membrane ion pump, has unique/valuable properties that could be used as a potentially important target for breast cancer treatment: (a) it is a key player of cell adhesion and is involved in cancer progression; (b) it serves as a versatile signal transducer and is a target for a number of hormones including estrogens and (d) its aberrant expression and activity are implicated in the development and progression of breast cancer. There are several lines of evidence indicating that ouabain and related digitalis (the potent inhibitors of Na+, K+-ATPase) possess potent anti-breast cancer activity. While it is not clear how the suggested anti-cancer activity of these drugs work, several observations point to ouabain and digitalis as being potential ER antagonists. We critically reviewed many lines of evidence and postulated a novel concept that Na+, K+-ATPase in combination with ERs could be important targets of anti-breast cancer drugs. Modulators, e.g. ouabain and related digitalis could be useful to develop valuable anti-breast cancer drugs as both Na+, K+-ATPase inhibitors and ER antagonists.

Estrogen receptor (ER)alpha and ERbeta are localized in the nucleus and involved in the regulation of nuclear estrogen-responsive genes by 17beta estradiol (E2). In addition, recently others have shown that upon E2 binding, ERalpha localizes to the plasma membrane and initiates mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-mediated signal transduction. Previously, we reported that in liver, cultured rat hepatocytes and human HepG2 cells, estrogen treatment enhanced mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)-encoded gene transcript levels. These effects were blocked by a specific antiestrogen, suggesting a role for the ER. Others have reported the presence of putative estrogen-responsive elements in mtDNA. These observations suggested the hypothesis that the ER localized in mitochondria and functioned directly to enhance the levels of mtDNA-encoded transcripts, analogous to what has been observed for the glucocorticoid hormone receptor. Using Western blot analysis, confocal immunofluorescence, immunogold electron microscopy, and gel electrophoresis mobility shift assays, we have demonstrated the estrogen-dependent presence of ERbeta and ERalpha within mitochondria of HepG2 and MCF-7 human breast tumor cells. Together, these results suggest that the ERs may act as transcription factors directly involved in the regulation by E2 of mtDNA transcription.