Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) represents a cluster of various vascular disorders with different pathological backgrounds. The advanced vasculature net of cerebral vessels, including small arteries, capillaries, arterioles and venules, is usually affected. Processes of oxidation underlie the pathology of CSVD, promoting the degenerative status of the epithelial layer. There are several classifications of cerebral small vessel diseases; some of them include diseases such as Binswanger’s disease, leukoaraiosis, cerebral microbleeds (CMBs) and lacunar strokes. This paper presents the characteristics of CSVD and the impact of the current knowledge of this topic on the diagnosis and treatment of patients.

Toll-like-receptor (TLR) family members were detected in the central nervous system (CNS). TLR occurrence was noticed and widely described in glioblastomamultiforme (GBM) cells. After ligand attachment, TLR-4 reorients domains and dimerizes, activates an intracellular cascade, and promotes further cytoplasmatic signaling. There is evidence pointing at a strong relation between TLR-4 signaling and micro ribonucleic acid (miRNA) expression. The TLR-4/miRNA interplay changes typical signaling and encourages them to be a target for modern immunotherapy. TLR-4 agonists initiate signaling and promote programmed death ligand-1 (PD-1L) expression. Most of those molecules are intensively expressed in the GBM microenvironment, resulting in the autocrine induction of regional immunosuppression. Another potential target for immunotreatment is connected with limited TLR-4 signaling that promotes Wnt/DKK-3/claudine-5 signaling, resulting in a limitation of GBM invasiveness. Interestingly, TLR-4 expression results in bordering proliferative trends in cancer stem cells (CSC) and GBM. All of these potential targets could bring new hope for patients suffering from this incurable disease. Clinical trials concerning TLR-4 signaling inhibition/promotion in many cancers are recruiting patients. There is still a lot to do in the field of GBM immunotherapy.

Hydroxyapatite possesses desirable properties as a scaffold in tissue engineering: it is biocompatible at a site of implantation, and it is degradable to non-toxic products. Moreover, its porosity enables infiltration of cells, nutrients and waste products. The outcome of hydroxyapatite implantation highly depends on the extent of the host immune response. Authors emphasise major roles of the chemical, morphological and physical properties of the surface of biomaterial used. A number of techniques have been applied to transform the theoretical osteoconductive features of HAp into spinal fusion systems—from integration of HAp with autograft to synthetic intervertebral implants. The most popular uses of HAp in spine surgery include implants (ACDF), bone grafts in posterolateral lumbar fusion and transpedicular screws coating. In the past, autologous bone graft has been used as an intervertebral cage in ACDF. Due to the morbidity related to autograft harvesting from the iliac bone, a synthetic cage with osteoconductive material such as hydroxyapatite seems to be a good alternative. Regarding posterolateral lumbar fusion, it requires the graft to induce new bone growth and reinforce fusion between the vertebrae. Hydroxyapatite formulations have shown good results in that field. Moreover, the HAp coating has proven to be an efficient method of increasing screw fixation strength. It can decrease the risk of complications such as screw loosening after pedicle screw fixation in osteoporotic patients. The purpose of this literature review is to describe in vivo reaction to HAp implants and to summarise its current application in spine surgery.

Over the last decade, pedicle fixation systems have evolved and modifications in spinal fusion techniques have been developed to increase fusion rates and improve clinical outcomes after lumbar interbody fusion (LIF). Regarding materials used for screw and rod manufacturing, metals, especially titanium alloys, are the most popular resources. In the case of pedicle screws, that biomaterial can be also doped with hydroxyapatite, CaP, ECM, or tantalum. Other materials used for rod fabrication include cobalt–chromium alloys and nitinol (nickel–titanium alloy). In terms of mechanical properties, the ideal implant used in LIF should have high tensile and fatigue strength, Young’s modulus similar to that of the bone, and should be 100% resistant to corrosion to avoid mechanical failures. On the other hand, a comprehensive understanding of cellular and molecular pathways is essential to identify preferable characteristics of implanted biomaterial to obtain fusion and avoid implant loosening. Implanted material elicits a biological response driven by immune cells at the site of insertion. These reactions are subdivided into innate (primary cellular response with no previous exposure) and adaptive (a specific type of reaction induced after earlier exposure to the antigen) and are responsible for wound healing, fusion, and also adverse reactions, i.e., hypersensitivity. The main purposes of this literature review are to summarize the physical and mechanical properties of metal alloys used for spinal instrumentation in LIF which include fatigue strength, Young’s modulus, and corrosion resistance. Moreover, we also focused on describing biological response after their implantation into the human body. Our review paper is mainly focused on titanium, cobalt–chromium, nickel–titanium (nitinol), and stainless steel alloys.

Spine metastases are a common life-threatening complication of advanced-stage malignancies and often result in poor prognosis. Symptomatic spine metastases develop in the course of about 10% of malignant neoplasms. Therefore, it is essential for contemporary medicine to understand metastatic processes in order to find appropriate, targeted therapeutic options. Thanks to continuous research, there appears more and more detailed knowledge about cancer and metastasis, but these transformations are extremely complicated, e.g., due to the complexity of reactions, the variety of places where they occur, or the participation of both tumor cells and host cells in these transitions. The right target points in tumor metastasis mechanisms are still being researched; that will help us in the proper diagnosis as well as in finding the right treatment. In this literature review, we described the current knowledge about the molecular pathways and biomarkers engaged in metastatic processes involving the spine. We also presented a current bone-targeted treatment for spine metastases and the emerging therapies targeting the discussed molecular mechanisms.