Aim The aim of this in vitro study was to evaluate the antimicrobial effectiveness of electro‐chemically activated water (ECA) as an endodontic irrigation solution. Methodology The root canals of 60 caries‐free, single‐rooted, adult, maxillary, anterior human teeth were instrumented and irrigated in a similar method to that used for in vivo root canal treatment. The external root surface of each tooth was sealed, maintaining the access cavities patent and the root canals were inoculated with a suspension containing four bacteria. The teeth were randomly divided into four groups (n = 15). Each group was irrigated ultrasonically with one of the following solutions: distilled water (control), NaOCl (3.5%), and ECA, the latter at pHs 7.0 and 9.0. Antimicrobial effectiveness was established directly after irrigation and again 7 days later, by counting colony‐forming units on blood agar plates and by spectrophotometric analysis. Results Large numbers of bacteria were present in the canals of teeth irrigated with distilled water. No bacteria were observed following irrigation with NaOCl. Neither of the ECA solutions were found to be effective against all the bacteria. Although some reduction in the number of bacteria was evident in the ECA groups, this was not statistically significant (P > 0.05) when compared to sodium hypochlorite. Conclusion Within the confines of this study ECA did not demonstrate antimicrobial effectiveness.

The cleaning efficacy of electro-chemically activated water in root canals was considered to be superior to NaOCl.

UKPapillomaviruses are a family of slowly evolving DNA viruses and their evolution is commonly linked to that of their host species. However, whilst bovine papillomavirus-1 (BPV-1) primarily causes warts in its natural host, the cow, it can also cause locally aggressive and invasive skin tumours in equids, known as sarcoids, and thus provides a rare contemporary example of crossspecies transmission of a papillomavirus. Here, we describe the first phylogenetic analysis of BPV-1 in equine sarcoids to our knowledge, allowing us to explore the evolutionary history of BPV-1 and investigate its cross-species association with equids. A phylogenetic analysis of the BPV-1 transcriptional promoter region (the long control region or LCR) was conducted on 15 bovine and 116 equine samples from four continents. Incorporating previous estimates for evolutionary rates in papillomavirus implied that the genetic diversity in the LCR variants was ancient and predated domestication of both equids and cattle. The phylogeny demonstrated geographical segregation into an ancestral group (African, South American and Australian samples), and a more recently derived, largely European clade. Whilst our data are consistent with 3These authors contributed equally to this work.The GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ accession numbers for the BPV-1 LCR sequence variants determined in this study are KJ577553-KJ577566 (SV1-SV 14, respectively) and KJ577567 (SV 19

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Distilled water was ineffective in controlling bacterial counts and biofilm. Electrochemically activated water was effective for this purpose.