Cellular origins and genetic factors governing the genesis and maintenance of glioblastomas (GBM) are not well understood. Here, we report a pathogenetic role of the developmental regulator Id4 (inhibitor of differentiation 4) in GBM. In primary murine Ink4a/Arf −/− astrocytes, and human glioma cells, we provide evidence that enforced Id4 can drive malignant transformation by stimulating increased cyclin E to produce a hyperproliferative profile and by increased Jagged1 expression with Notch1 activation to drive astrocytes into a neural stem-like cell state. Thus, Id4 plays an integral role in the transformation of astrocytes via its combined actions on two-key cell cycle and differentiation regulatory molecules.Supplemental material is available at http://www.genesdev.org. The self-renewal, differentiative, and proliferative states of tissue stem and progenitor cells are maintained by a variety of well-defined cell fate determinant factors (Keller 2005). Disregulation of such key developmental regulators and acquisition and maintenance of an immature differentiation phenotype are common themes across a broad spectrum of cancer types, including primary brain cancers (Garraway and Sellers 2006). Indeed, a growing body of evidence supports the view that developmental regulators play direct roles in driving aspiring cancer cells toward a malignant phenotype, one that is endowed with stem-like cell properties including robust renewal potential (Beachy et al. 2004). This cellular phenotype, embodied in the cancer stem cell paradigm (Pardal et al. 2003), has been well documented in the highly malignant brain cancer, primary glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) (Galli et al. 2004;Singh et al. 2004). The cellular origins and specific genetic elements involved in the genesis and maintenance of these so-called brain cancer stem cells (BCSCs) remain areas of intensive investigation. Results and Discussion Id4 is overexpressed human GBM, and can drive transformation of murine Ink4a/Arf −/− astrocytesGiven the biological significance of stem cell fate determinants in the regulation of normal self-renewal and differentiation, we hypothesized that the genetic or epigenetic alterations in classical cell fate determinants might cooperate with prototypical oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes to both effect malignant transformation and endow stem cell-like renewal activity in these tumors (Leung et al. 2004;Ligon et al. 2007). We were particularly focused on the expression and functional activity of inhibitor of differentiation 4 (Id4) in GBM given its prominent role in governing neural stem cell (NSC) fate decisions (Yun et al. 2004). Id4 mRNA levels were found to be increased in nine of 15 GBM samples as compared with human normal brain tissue (Supplemental Fig. S1A) and abundant Id4 mRNA and protein levels were detected in five of seven human glioma cell lines (A172, LN229, LN18, U87MG, and T98G) and an immortalized human NSC line (HB1.F3) (Cho et al. 2002), but not in the normal human astrocytes (NHA) (Supplemental Fig. S1B). Tumor ...

IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) is a transcriptional factor that plays a crucial role in activation of innate immunity and inflammation in response to viral infection, and is also involved in p53-dependent inhibition of cell growth. Although functional activation of IRF3 by viral infection is relatively well documented, the biological role and regulatory mechanism underlying cell growth inhibition by IRF3 are poorly understood. Here, we show a novel regulatory pathway connecting IRF3-promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML)-p53 in primary and cancer cell lines. Overexpression of IRF3 induces p53-dependent cell growth inhibition in cancer cell lines with normal p53 activity. In addition, doxycycline-induced expression of IRF3 in U87MG cells inhibits tumor growth in nude mice in vivo. IRF3 is found to increase expression of PML by a direct transcriptional activation as determined by PMLpromoter-luciferase and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays. When PML is depleted by RNA interference-mediated knockdown, IRF3 fails to increase p53 acetylation and its transcriptional activity. Taken together, the results of the present study indicate that direct transcriptional activation of PML by IRF3 results in the p53-dependent growth inhibition of normal and cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, which is suggestive of a novel regulatory network between the innate immune response and tumor suppression. [Cancer Res 2007; 67(23):11133-40]

We have established several glioma-relevant oncogeneengineered cancer cells to reevaluate the oncogeneselective cytotoxicity of previously well-characterized anticancer drugs, such as etoposide, doxorubicin, staurosporine, and carmustine. Among several glioma-relevant oncogenes (activated epidermal growth factor receptor, Ras, and Akt, as well as Bcl-2 and p53DD used in the present study), the activated epidermal growth factor receptor, Ras, and Akt exerted oncogenic transformation of Ink4a/Arf À/À murine astrocyte cells. We identified that etoposide, a topoisomerase II inhibitor, caused selective killing of myristylated Akt (Akt-myr) -transduced Ink4a/Arf À/À astrocytes and U87MG cells in a dose-and time-dependent manner. Etoposide-selective cytotoxicity in the Akt-myr -transduced cells was shown to be caused by nonapoptotic cell death and occurred in a p53-independent manner. Etoposide caused severe reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation preferentially in the Akt-myr -transduced cells, and elevated ROS rendered these cells highly sensitive to cell death. The etoposideselective cell death of Akt-myr -transduced cells was attenuated by pepstatin A, a lysosomal protease inhibitor.In the present study, we show that etoposide might possess a novel therapeutic activity for oncogenic Akttransduced cancer cells to kill preferentially through ROSmediated damage.

The mitochondrial pathway of swine influenza virus (SIV)-induced apoptosis was investigated using porcine kidney (PK-15) cells, swine testicle (

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