Aim The threats of novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) have caused fears worldwide. The Fear of COVID‐19 Scale (FCV‐19S) was recently developed to assess the fear of COVID‐19. Although many studies found that the FCV‐19S is psychometrically sound, it is unclear whether the FCV‐19S is invariant across countries. The present study aimed to examine the measurement invariance of the FCV‐19S across eleven countries. Design Cross‐sectional study. Methods Using data collected from prior research on Bangladesh (N = 8,550), United Kingdom (N = 344), Brazil (N = 1,843), Taiwan (N = 539), Italy (N = 249), New Zealand (N = 317), Iran (N = 717), Cuba (N = 772), Pakistan (N = 937), Japan (N = 1,079) and France (N = 316), comprising a total 15,663 participants, the present study used the multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and Rasch differential item functioning (DIF) to examine the measurement invariance of the FCV‐19S across country, gender and age (children aged below 18 years, young to middle‐aged adults aged between 18 and 60 years, and older people aged above 60 years). Results The unidimensional structure of the FCV‐19S was confirmed. Multigroup CFA showed that FCV‐19S was partially invariant across country and fully invariant across gender and age. DIF findings were consistent with the findings from multigroup CFA. Many DIF items were displayed for country, few DIF items were displayed for age, and no DIF items were displayed for gender. Conclusion Based on the results of the present study, the FCV‐19S is a good psychometric instrument to assess fear of COVID‐19 during the pandemic period. Moreover, the use of FCV‐19S is supported in at least ten countries with satisfactory psychometric properties.

Scales for perceived egocentric distance produced by three psychophysical methods in four ranges of distances were compared. It was found that (a) the exponents produced by ratio and fractionation methods are in good agreement; (b) the exponents of both these methods were larger than those produced by magnitude estimation; (c) an increase in range of distance was associated with a decrease in exponent, but this diminution seems to interact with the method used; (d) for all the psychophysical methods used, there was large variability in the individual exponent; (e) the exponent was smaller than 1.0 for approximately 78% of the pooled sample, with all adult observers (N = 612) considered; and (f) an arithmetic mean exponent equal to 0.90 represents fairly all the results obtained. The scaling of apparent distance shows that perceived distance increases as a power function of physical distance (

RESUMO JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS:A quantificação da dor enfrenta dificuldades especiais. Elas surgem devido à óbvia associação das sensações de dor com um conjunto de fatores emocionais, motivacionais e culturais. Apesar disso, a mensuração da dor é essencial para a avaliação e o tratamento dos seus efeitos. O objetivo deste estudo foi mostrar que os métodos psicofísicos podem ser adequadamente empregados para a mensuração, tanto da dor clínica quando da dor experimental. CONTEÚDO: Em adição, a metodologia pode ser útil para analisar os mecanismos da dor, a analgesia, os vieses metodológicos inerentes aos registros verbais da dor e dissociar os componentes sensoriais e cognitivos da sensação/ percepção de dor. CONCLUSÃO: A metodologia psicofísica pode ser uma medida fidedigna e válida do quinto sinal vital, que é a dor, em todas as suas dimensões. Descritores: Avaliação da dor, Dor clínica, Dor experimental, Mensuração da dor, Percepção da dor, Psicofísica da dor. SUMMARY BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES:Pain quantification faces special difficulties. They appear due to the

Evidence for a two-process theory of the observer's visual judgment of size and distance is summarized and evaluated. The primary process, as expressed. by the size-distance invariance hypothesis (SDllI), concerns the interrelation of perceived size (8') and perceived distance (D'), independent of information derived from memory or suggestion. The secondary process involves information regarding size (from memory or suggestion) not contained in the immediate visual stimulus. If the primary and secondary sources of size information differ, the object is seen as off-sized. This off-sized perception can be used to modify the direct report of the distance of too object. In the case of the casual suggestion of size, the off-sized judgment produces a nonper(;eptual (cognitive) report of distance (Gogel, 1981b). In the case ofthe memory ofthe size of a familiar object, some of the effect on the direct report of perceived distance is perceptual, but most is cognitive (Gogel, 1976). In the case of optical expansion, the effect of off-sized judgments on distance responses produces a clear modification of perceived distance (Swanston & Gogel, 1986). The experimental distinction between primary and secondary processes is facilitated by comparing measures of perceived distance obtained from direct procedures (e.g., verbal reports of distance) with those obtained from indirect procedures (e.g., the head motion procedure). The former (direct) methods reflect both primary and secondary sources of information. The latter (indirect) methods are sensitive only to primary sources. The significance of the two-process theory for the specification of the SDIH and the explanation of other visual phenomena is discussed. THE PROBLEMThe need to postulate more than one process in the response to size and distance information is evident in research concerned with the effect of suggestion on reports of size and distance. This research has been conducted within the paradigm of the SDIH, which in its usual form is that cation of perceptions, although it has been found recently that, under proper conditions, its effect on the response to distance can be clearly perceptual (Swanston & Gogel, 1986). As will be discussed, these two processes have been distinguished experimentally; the results are relevant to the basic problem of how and under what conditions information not available in the immediate stimulus, but available from memory or suggestion, can modify what is perceived.In this paper we consider the evidence for a two-process theory of the observer's response to visual information regarding size and distance. The primary process is responsible for the interrelation of perceived size and perceived distance, consistent with the size-distance invariance hypothesis (SDIH) (Epstein, Park, & Casey, 1961; Gilinsky, 1951; Kilpatrick & Ittelson, 1953; Schlosberg, 1950). The primary process utilizes sensory information available in the immediate visual stimulus. It does not require a memory of prior spatial extents, and it invariably results in...