The conservation of large carnivores is a formidable challenge for biodiversity conservation. Using a data set on the past and current status of brown bears (Ursus arctos), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), gray wolves (Canis lupus), and wolverines (Gulo gulo) in European countries, we show that roughly one-third of mainland Europe hosts at least one large carnivore species, with stable or increasing abundance in most cases in 21st-century records. The reasons for this overall conservation success include protective legislation, supportive public opinion, and a variety of practices making coexistence between large carnivores and people possible. The European situation reveals that large carnivores and people can share the same landscape.

Hybridization between wild species and their domestic counterparts may represent a major threat to natural populations. However, high genetic similarity between the hybridizing taxa makes the detection of hybrids a difficult task and may hinder attempts to assess the impact of hybridization in conservation biology. In this work, we used a combination of 42 autosomal microsatellites together with Y-chromosome microsatellite-defined haplotypes and mtDNA sequences to investigate the occurrence and dynamics of wolf-dog hybridization in the Iberian Peninsula. To do this, we applied a variety of Bayesian analyses and a parallel set of simulation studies to evaluate (i) the differences between Iberian wolves and dogs, (ii) the frequency and geographical distribution of hybridization and (iii) the directionality of hybridization. First, we show that Iberian wolves and dogs form two well-differentiated genetic entities, suggesting that introgressive hybridization is not a widespread phenomenon shaping both gene pools. Second, we found evidence for the existence of hybridization that is apparently restricted to more peripheral and recently expanded wolf populations. Third, we describe compelling evidence suggesting that the dynamics of hybridization in wolf populations is mediated by crosses between male dogs and female wolves. More importantly, the observation of a population showing the occurrence of a continuum of hybrid classes forming mixed packs may indicate that we have underestimated hybridization. If future studies confirm this pattern, then an intriguing avenue of research is to investigate how introgression from free-ranging domestic dogs is enabling wolf populations to adapt to the highly humanized habitats of southern Europe while still maintaining their genetic differentiation.

The European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus, an important game species in Spain, has declined sharply since the arrival of haemorrhagic disease in 1988. As a consequence of this decline, it appears that illegal and extensive persecution of predators has increased. We have assessed the impact of this persecution on red kites Milvus milvus.Around 90% of the populations studied have declined during the last 3-10 years, and the species' range has been reduced since 1980, particularly in high rabbit density areas (those most valuable for hunters). Currently, stable or increasing populations of red kites are located in areas of low rabbit density. Their abundance in areas of high rabbit density is similar to that recorded during the 1970s. when, after the spread of myxomatosis over Spain, government-sponsored campaigns of vermin extermination were carried out. Although red kites cannot be considered important predators of rabbits, they are disproportionally sufering the effects of human persecution, because of their susceptibility to shooting and poisoning, and a lack of understanding among hunters. We discuss the management strategies that might be used during population crashes of game species to avoid unjust@edpersecution of predators.

The current distribution and rate of spread of rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD) has been studied in Spain using interviews with hunters and conservationists and field surveys. The disease is currently present throughout Spain. A low rate of expansion (2-15 km per month), yet long distances between simultaneous outbreaks, suggests human-related transmission of RHD. The disease appears annually, mainly during spring (52.5 %) and winter (33.8 %). Most of the interviewees (63 %) indicated that the first outbreak of the disease caused greater mortalities than successive outbreaks. To investigate this, we estimated the mortality rate from RHD ot one locality, six years after the initial outbreak. The mortality rate was approximately 30 %, and lower than that estimated during the first outbreak of RHD (55-75 %). Few populations of rabbits (7.5 %) have returned to levels they held prior to the onset of the disease. Recovery was greater among dense populations. Most sites with low population of rabbits prior to the arrival of RHD have not recovered.Resume. -La distribution actuelle et les taux de propagation de la maladie hemorragique virale (RHD) ont etc etudies en Espagne par des entrevues directes et un examen sur le terrain, apres l'arrivee de la RHD en 1988. La maladie est maintenant presente partout en Espagne. La fagon dont la RHD s'est repandue en Espagne, avec un faible taux d'expansion entre local ites (2-15 km par mois) et une longue distance entre epidemics simultanees, semble indiquer un mode de transmission lie ä 1'activite humaine. La maladie apparait annuellement, principalement au printemps (52,5 %) et en hiver (33,8 %). La plupart des personnes interrogees (63 %) ont indique que la premiere epidemic de la maladie a cause une plus forte mortalite que les epidemics suivantes. Afin de verifier cela, nous avons estime le taux de mortalite du ä la RHD dans une localite, six ans apres la premiere epidemic. Le taux de mortalite etait d'environ 30 % et inferieur ä celui estime lors de la premiere epidemic de RHD (55-75 %). Peu de populations de lapins (7,5 %) sont retournees aux niveaux anterieurs ä l'arrivee de la maladie. Le retablissement a etc le plus important la ou la densite avant la maladie etait la plus forte. La plupart des populations avec une faible abondance de lapins avant la RHD se sont retablies completement.

Wolf Canis lupus dispersal, social structure and mortality have been extensively studied in natural and semi-natural areas of North America and northern Europe but have never been assessed in agricultural areas. From 1997 to 2004, 14 wolves (11 in a wolf-saturated area and three in a low-density area) were radio-collared with long-lasting transmitters in a Spanish agricultural area containing a highhuman-population density, a dense network of roads and a shortage of wild ungulates. The wolves mainly feed on an overabundance of livestock carrion. Nine wolves (one of them, three times) dispersed during the study period. The mean age and distance of natal dispersal were 24.8 months and 32 km. The natal dispersal period was much longer in wolves radio-collared in the saturated area (mean 414.6 months) than in the low-density area (o1 month). All three of the dispersers living in the low-density area, and two of the six dispersers in the saturated area settled and bred during the study. The average tenure of six breeders was 4.5 years. The radio-collared wolves spent 72% of the monitoring time living in packs and the rest living in pairs, as dispersers or as peripheral wolves, but the percentage of loners was much higher in the saturated (33.5%) than in the low density (1.6%) areas. The overall annual mortality was 18% (lower than in most populations studied in less modified habitats), but lone wolves had a significantly higher mortality than members of packs and pairs. Nine wolves died during the study, none of them due to natural causes. In general, our results are very similar to those obtained in less modified habitats, except for the dispersal distance, which was much shorter than in other studies. We suggest that barriers and habitat constraints may reduce dispersal distances in our study area.