Lipoproteins (Lpp) of Gram-positive bacteria are major players in alerting our immune system. Here, we show that the TLR2 response induced by commensal species Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis is almost ten times lower than that induced by noncommensal Staphylococcus carnosus, and this is at least partially due to their different modifications of the Lpp lipid moieties. The N terminus of the lipid moiety is acylated with a long-chain fatty acid (C17) in S. aureus and S. epidermidis, while it is acylated with a short-chain fatty acid (C2) in S. carnosus. The long-chain N-acylated Lpp, recognized by TLR2–TLR1 receptors, silences innate and adaptive immune responses, while the short-chain N-acetylated Lpp, recognized by TLR2–TLR6 receptors, boosts it.

f Porphyromonas gingivalis is an important member of the anaerobic oral flora. Its presence fosters growth of periodontal biofilm and development of periodontitis. In this study, we demonstrated that lipophilic outer membrane vesicles (OMV) shed from P. gingivalis promote monocyte unresponsiveness to live P. gingivalis but retain reactivity to stimulation with bacterial DNA isolated from P. gingivalis or AIM2 ligand poly(dA·dT). OMV-mediated tolerance of P. gingivalis is characterized by selective abrogation of tumor necrosis factor (TNF). Neutralization of interleukin-10 (IL-10) during OMV challenge partially restores monocyte responsiveness to P. gingivalis; full reactivity to P. gingivalis can be restored by inhibition of mTOR signaling, which we previously identified as the major signaling pathway promoting Toll-like receptor 2 and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR2/4)-mediated tolerance in monocytes. However, despite previous reports emphasizing a central role of TLR2 in innate immune recognition of P. gingivalis, our current findings highlight a selective role of TLR4 in the promotion of OMV-mediated TNF tolerance: only blockade of TLR4 -and not of TLR2-restores responsiveness to P. gingivalis. Of further note, OMV-mediated tolerance is preserved in the presence of cytochalasin B and chloroquine, indicating that triggering of surface TLR4 is sufficient for this effect. Taking the results together, we propose that P. gingivalis OMV contribute to local immune evasion of P. gingivalis by hampering the host response. P eriodontitis (PD) is probably the most frequent chronic inflammatory disorder associated with an alteration of the local microbiota. Clinically, release of inflammatory mediators induces collagen degradation and bone resorption, which ultimately result in tooth loss. The carbohydrate-deficient subgingival environment fosters the growth of Porphyromonas gingivalis (1). Tissue degradation caused by enzymes released from bacteria and neutrophils provokes an inflammatory response and supplies bacteria with additional nutrients. This specific milieu permits growth of P. gingivalis, whose sophisticated mechanisms for immune evasion enhance growth of the periodontal biofilm, thus leading to bacterial overgrowth and excessive immune stimulation (2, 3).P. gingivalis releases outer membrane lipophilic microvesicles, which contain lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as a major structural component (4-6). These outer membrane vesicles (OMV) overcome the epithelial barrier, thus transporting LPS and other virulence factors into the host tissue (7). Subsequently, OMV elicit a robust mucosal immune response (8), an effect exploited in OMV-based vaccines (8, 9) and mainly attributed to their LPS content (6). However, unlike LPS from Escherichia coli or Salmonella spp., which are Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonists, P. gingivalis LPS contains a mixture of chemically diverse lipid A species with distinct immune stimulatory properties (10). Albeit P. gingivalis LPS was formerly thought to act as a TLR2 ligand (11, 12), recent studi...

The innate immune system harbors a multitude of different receptor systems and cells that are constantly prepared to sense and eliminate invading microbial pathogens. Staphylococcus aureus enters the body on its exposed epithelial surfaces, e.g., on skin and mucosa. The initial interaction with epithelial cells is governed by Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2-mediated local production of soluble mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, and antimicrobial peptides. The overall goal is to achieve a steady state of immune mediators and colonizing bacteria. Following cell and tissue invasion clearance of bacteria depends on intracellular microbial sensors and subsequent activation of the inflammasomes. Tissue-resident mast cells and macrophages recruit neutrophils, macrophages, and NK cells. This inflammatory response supports the generation of IL-17 producing NKT, γδ T cells, and T helper cells. Local dendritic cells migrate to the lymph nodes and fine-tune the adaptive immune response. The scope of this chapter is to provide an overview on the major cell types and receptors involved in innate immune defense against S. aureus. By segregating the different stages of infection from epithelial barrier to intracellular and systemic infection, this chapter highlights the different qualities of the innate immune response to S. aureus at different stages of invasiveness.

Intracellular persistence of Staphylococcus aureus favors bacterial spread and chronic infections. Here, we provide evidence for the existence of human CD4+ and CD8+ T cell memory against staphylococcal antigens. Notably, the latter could provide a missing link in our understanding of immune control of intracellular S. aureus. The analyses showed that pulsing of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDC) with native staphylococcal protein antigens induced release of Th2-associated cytokines and mediators linked to T regulatory cell development (G-CSF, IL-2 and IL-10) from both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, thus revealing a state of tolerance predominantly arising from preformed memory T cells. Furthermore, G-CSF was identified as a suppressor of CD8+ T cell-derived IFNγ secretion, thus confirming a tolerogenic role of this cytokine in the regulation of T cell responses to S. aureus. Nevertheless, delivery of in vitro transcribed mRNA-encoded staphylococcal antigens triggered Th1-biased responses, e.g. IFNγ and TNF release from both naïve and memory T cells. Collectively, our data highlight the potential of mRNA-adjuvanted antigen presentation to enable inflammatory responses, thus overriding the existing Th2/Treg-biased memory T cell response to native S. aureus antigens.